đź“ť Note
Since the innsight package relies on the torch package for each method and this requires a successful installation of LibTorch and other dependencies (torch::install_torch()
), no examples can be run in the R vignette for memory reasons. For the executed code chunks, we refer to our website.
As described in the introduction, innsight is a package that aims to be highly flexible and easily accessible to almost any R user from any background. This vignette describes in detail all the possibilities to explain a prediction of a data instance for a given model using the provided methods and how to create a visualization of the results.
Converter
The R6 class Converter
is the heart of the package and
makes it to a deep-learning-model-agnostic approach, i.e., it
accepts models not only from a single deep learning library but from
many different libraries. This property makes the package outstanding
and highly flexible. Internally, each layer is analyzed, and the
relevant parameters and components are extracted into a list. Afterward,
a customized model based on the library torch is
generated from this list, with the interpretation methods
pre-implemented in each of the accepted layers and modules. On this
baseline, different methods can be implemented and applied later in step
2. To be able to create a new object, the following call is used:
converter <- Converter$new(model,
input_dim = NULL,
input_names = NULL,
output_names = NULL,
dtype = "float",
save_model_as_list = FALSE
)
As you can see, the Converter
class is implemented using
an R6::R6Class()
class. However, this assumes that users
have prior knowledge of these classes, potentially making the
application a bit unfamiliar. For this reason, we have implemented a
shortcut function that initializes an object of the
Converter
class in a more familiar R syntax:
converter <- convert(model,
input_dim = NULL,
input_names = NULL,
output_names = NULL,
dtype = "float",
save_model_as_list = FALSE
)
model
This is the passed trained model. Currently, it can be a sequential
torch model
(nn_sequential()
), a tensorflow/keras
model (keras_model()
or
keras_model_sequential()
), a neuralnet
model or a model as a list. All these options are explained in detail in
the following subsections.
Currently, only models created by torch::nn_sequential
are accepted. However, the most popular standard layers and activation
functions are available:
Linear layers: nn_linear()
Convolutional layers: nn_conv1d()
,
nn_conv2d()
(but only with
padding_mode = "zeros"
and numerical padding)
Max-pooling layers: nn_max_pool1d()
,
nn_max_pool2d()
(both only with default arguments for
padding = 0
, dilation = 1
,
return_indices = FALSE
and
ceil_mode = FALSE
)
Average-pooling layers: nn_avg_pool1d()
,
nn_avg_pool2d()
(both only with default arguments for
padding = 0
, return_indices = FALSE
and
ceil_mode = FALSE
)
Batch-normalization layers: nn_batch_norm1d()
,
nn_batch_norm2d()
Flatten layer: nn_flatten()
Skipped layers: nn_dropout()
Activation functions: nn_relu
,
nn_leaky_relu
, nn_softplus
,
nn_sigmoid
, nn_softmax
, nn_tanh
(open an issue if you need any more)
đź“ť Notes
In a torch model, the shape of the inputs is not stored; hence it must be specified with the argument
input_dim
within the initialization of theConverter
object.
library(torch)
torch_model <- nn_sequential(
nn_conv2d(3, 5, c(2, 2), stride = 2, padding = 3),
nn_relu(),
nn_avg_pool2d(c(2, 2)),
nn_flatten(),
nn_linear(80, 32),
nn_relu(),
nn_dropout(),
nn_linear(32, 2),
nn_softmax(dim = 2)
)
# For torch models the optional argument `input_dim` becomes a necessary one
converter <- convert(torch_model, input_dim = c(3, 10, 10))
#> Skipping nn_dropout ...
Keras models created by keras_model_sequential
or keras_model
are accepted. Within these functions, the following layers are allowed
to be used:
Input layer: layer_input()
Linear layers: layer_dense()
Convolutional layers: layer_conv_1d()
,
layer_conv_2d()
Pooling layers: layer_max_pooling_1d()
,
layer_max_pooling_2d()
,
layer_average_pooling_1d()
,
layer_average_pooling_2d()
,
layer_global_average_pooling_1d()
,
layer_global_average_pooling_2d()
,
layer_global_max_pooling_1d()
,
layer_global_max_pooling_2d()
Batch-normalization layer:
layer_batch_normalization()
Flatten layer: layer_flatten()
Merging layers: layer_add()
,
layer_concatenate()
(but it is assumed that the
concatenation axis points to the channel axis)
Padding layers: layer_zero_padding_1d()
,
layer_zero_padding_2d()
Skipped layers: layer_dropout()
Activation functions: The following activation functions are
allowed as character argument (activation
) in a linear and
convolutional layer: "relu"
, "softplus"
,
"sigmoid"
, "softmax"
, "tanh"
,
"linear"
. But you can also specify the activation function
as a standalone layer: layer_activation_relu()
,
layer_activation_softmax()
. But keep in mind that an
activation layer may only follow a dense, convolutional or pooling
layer. If you miss an activation function, feel free to open an issue on
GitHub.
Example 1: keras_model_sequential
library(keras)
#>
#> Attache Paket: 'keras'
#> Das folgende Objekt ist maskiert 'package:luz':
#>
#> evaluate
# Create model
keras_model_seq <- keras_model_sequential()
keras_model_seq <- keras_model_seq %>%
layer_dense(10, input_shape = c(5), activation = "softplus") %>%
layer_dense(8, use_bias = FALSE, activation = "tanh") %>%
layer_dropout(0.2) %>%
layer_dense(4, activation = "softmax")
converter <- convert(keras_model_seq)
#> Skipping Dropout ...
Example 2: keras_model
library(keras)
input_image <- layer_input(shape = c(10, 10, 3))
input_tab <- layer_input(shape = c(20))
conv_part <- input_image %>%
layer_conv_2d(5, c(2, 2), activation = "relu", padding = "same") %>%
layer_average_pooling_2d() %>%
layer_conv_2d(4, c(2, 2)) %>%
layer_activation(activation = "softplus") %>%
layer_flatten()
output <- layer_concatenate(list(conv_part, input_tab)) %>%
layer_dense(50, activation = "relu") %>%
layer_dropout(0.3) %>%
layer_dense(3, activation = "softmax")
keras_model_concat <- keras_model(inputs = list(input_image, input_tab), outputs = output)
converter <- convert(keras_model_concat)
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
#> Skipping Dropout ...
Using nets from the package neuralnet is very simple
and straightforward, because the package offers much fewer options than
torch or keras. The only thing to note
is that no custom activation function can be used. However, the package
saves the names of the inputs and outputs, which can, of course, be
overwritten with the arguments input_names
and
output_names
when creating the converter object.
library(neuralnet)
data(iris)
set.seed(42)
# Create model
neuralnet_model <- neuralnet(Species ~ Petal.Length + Petal.Width, iris,
linear.output = FALSE
)
# Convert model
converter <- convert(neuralnet_model)
# Show input names
converter$input_names
#> [[1]]
#> [[1]][[1]]
#> [1] Petal.Length Petal.Width
#> Levels: Petal.Length Petal.Width
# Show output names
converter$output_names
#> [[1]]
#> [[1]][[1]]
#> [1] setosa versicolor virginica
#> Levels: setosa versicolor virginica
Besides models from the packages keras,
torch and neuralnet it is also
possible to pass a self-defined model in the form of a named list to the
Converter
class/convert()
function. This
enables the interpretation of networks from other libraries with all
available methods provided by the innsight package.
If you want to create a custom model, your list (e.g.,
model <- list()
) needs at least the keys
model$input_dim
and model$layers
. However,
other optional keys that can be used to name the input features and
output nodes or to test the model for correctness. In summary:
input_dim
The model input dimension excluding the batch dimension in the format
“channels first”. If there is only one input layer, it can be
specified as a vector. Otherwise, use a list of the shapes of the
individual input layers in the correct order.
input_nodes
layers
list. If there are multiple input layers, the
indices of the corresponding layers must be in the same order as in the
input_dim
and input_names
arguments. If this
argument is not set, a warning is printed and it is assumed that the
first layer in layers
is the only input layer.input_names
(optional)
The names for each input dimension excluding the batch axis in the
format “channels first”. If there is only one input layer, it
can be specified as a list of character vectors or factors for each
input axis. Otherwise, use a list of those for each input layer in the
correct order.
output_dim
(optional)
An integer vector or a list of vectors with the model output dimension
without the batch dimension analogous to input_dim
. This
value does not need to be specified and will be calculated otherwise.
However, if it is set, the calculated value will be compared with it to
avoid errors while converting the model.
output_nodes
An integer vector specifying the indices of the output layers from the
layers
list. If there are multiple output layers, the
indices of the corresponding layers must be in the same order as in the
output_dim
and output_names
arguments. If this
argument is not set, a warning is printed and it is assumed that the
last layer in layers
is the only output layer.
output_names
(optional)
A list or a list of lists with the names for each output dimension for
each output layer analogous to input_names
. By default
(NULL
), the names are generated.
layers
(see next subsection)
đź“ť Notes
The arguments for the input and output names are optional. By default (NULL
), they are generated, i.e.,
the output names are
c("Y1", "Y2", "Y3", ... )
for each output layer.the input names are
c("X1", "X2", "X3", ...)
for tabular input layers,
list(c("C1", "C2", ...), c("L1", "L2", ...))
for 1D input layers and
list(c("C1", "C2", ...), c("H1", "H2", ...), c("W1", "W2", ...))
for 2D input layers.
The list entry layers
contains a list with all accepted
layers of the model. In general, each element has the following three
arguments:
type
: The type of the layer, e.g.,
"Dense"
, "Conv2D"
,
"MaxPooling1D"
, etc. (see blow for all accepted
types).
input_layers
: The list indices from
the layers
list going into this layer, i.e., the previous
layers. If this argument is not set, a warning is printed and it is
assumed that the previous list index in layers
is the only
preceding layer. If this layer is an input layer, use the value
0
.
output_layers
: The list indices
from the layers
list that follow this layer. If this
argument is not set, a warning is printed and it is assumed that the
next list index in layers
is the only following layer. If
this layer is an output layer, use the value -1
.
dim_in
(optional): The input
dimension of this layer excluding the batch axis according to the
format
\(\left( \text{feat}_\text{in}
\right)\) for tabular data, e.g., c(3)
for \(3\) features,
\(\left(\text{channels}_\text{in},
\text{length}_\text{in} \right)\) for 1D signal data, e.g.,
c(3,10)
for signals with length \(10\) and \(3\) channels or
\(\left(\text{channels}_\text{in},
\text{height}_\text{in}, \text{width}_\text{in} \right)\) for 2D
image data, e.g., c(3,10,10)
for images of shape \(10\times10\) with \(3\) channels.
For merging layers, a list of the above formats is required, but this is described in more detail in the corresponding types below.
This value is not necessary, but helpful to check the format of the weight matrix and the overall correctness of the converted model.
dim_out
(optional): The output
dimension of this layer excluding the batch axis analogous to the
argument dim_in
. This value is not necessary, but helpful
to check the format of the weight matrix and the overall correctness of
the converted model.
In addition to these main arguments, individual arguments can be set for each layer type, as described below:
type = "Dense"
)
weight
: The weight matrix of the
dense layer with shape (dim_out
,
dim_in
).
bias
: The bias vector of the dense
layer with length dim_out
.
activation_name
: The name of the
activation function for this dense layer, e.g., 'linear'
,
'relu'
, 'tanh'
or
'softmax'
.
Example for a dense layer
type = "Con1D"
or
"Con2D"
)
weight
: The weight array of the
convolutional layer with shape \(\left(\text{channels}_\text{out},
\text{channels}_\text{in}, \text{kernel}_\text{length}\right)\)
for 1D signal or \(\left(\text{channels}_\text{out},
\text{channels}_\text{in}, \text{kernel}_\text{height},
\text{kernel}_\text{width}\right)\) for 2D image.
bias
: The bias vector of the layer
with length \(\text{channels}_\text{out}\).
activation_name
: The name of the
activation function for this layer, e.g., 'linear'
,
'relu'
, 'tanh'
or
'softmax'
.
stride
(optional): The stride of
the convolution (single integer for 1D and tuple of two integers for 2D
data). If this value is not specified, the default values (1D:
1
and 2D: c(1,1)
) are used.
padding
(optional): Zero-padding
added to the sides of the input before convolution. For 1D-convolution a
tuple of the form \(\left(\text{pad}_\text{left},
\text{pad}_\text{right}\right)\) and for 2D-convolution \(\left(\text{pad}_\text{left},
\text{pad}_\text{right}, \text{pad}_\text{top},
\text{pad}_\text{bottom}\right)\) is required. If this value is
not specified, the default values (1D: c(0,0)
and 2D:
c(0,0,0,0)
) are used.
dilation
(optional): Spacing
between kernel elements (single integer for 1D and tuple of two integers
for 2D data). If this value is not specified, the default values (1D:
1
and 2D: c(1,1)
) are used.
Examples for convolutional layers
# 1D convolutional layer
conv_1D <- list(
type = "Conv1D",
input_layers = 1,
output_layers = 3,
weight = array(rnorm(8 * 3 * 2), dim = c(8, 3, 2)),
bias = rnorm(8),
padding = c(2, 1),
activation_name = "tanh",
dim_in = c(3, 10), # optional
dim_out = c(8, 9) # optional
)
# 2D convolutional layer
conv_2D <- list(
type = "Conv2D",
input_layes = 3,
output_layers = 5,
weight = array(rnorm(8 * 3 * 2 * 4), dim = c(8, 3, 2, 4)),
bias = rnorm(8),
padding = c(1, 1, 0, 0),
dilation = c(1, 2),
activation_name = "relu",
dim_in = c(3, 10, 10) # optional
)
type = "MaxPooling1D"
,
"MaxPooling2D"
, "AveragePooling1D"
or
"AveragePooling2D"
)
kernel_size
: The size of the
pooling window as an integer value for 1D-pooling and an tuple of two
integers for 2D-pooling.
strides
(optional): The stride of
the pooling window (single integer for 1D and tuple of two integers for
2D data). If this value is not specified (NULL
), the value
of kernel_size
will be used.
Example for a pooling layer
type = "BatchNorm"
)
During inference, the layer normalizes its output using a moving average of the mean and standard deviation of the batches it has seen during training, i.e., \[ y = \gamma \cdot \frac{x - \mu}{\sqrt{\sigma + \varepsilon}} + \beta \]
num_features
: The number of
features to normalize over. Usually the number of channels is
used.
eps
: The value \(\varepsilon\) added to the denominator for
numerical stability.
gamma
: The vector of scaling
factors \(\gamma\) for each feature to
be normalized, i.e., a numerical vector of length
num_features
.
beta
: The vector of offset values
\(\beta\) for each feature to be
normalized, i.e., a numerical vector of length
num_features
.
run_mean
: The vector of running
means \(\mu\) for each feature to be
normalized, i.e., a numerical vector of length
num_features
.
run_var
: The vector of running
variances \(\sigma\) for each feature
to be normalized, i.e., a numerical vector of length
num_features
.
Example for a batch normalization layer
type = "Flatten"
)
start_dim
(optional): An integer
value that describes the axis from which the dimension is flattened. By
default (NULL
) the axis following the batch axis is
selected, i.e., 2
.
end_dim
(optional): An integer
value that describes the axis to which the dimension is flattened. By
default (NULL
) the last axis is selected, i.e.,
-1
.
Example for a flatten layer
type = "GlobalPooling"
)
method
: Use either
'average'
for global average pooling or 'max'
for global maximum pooling.Examples for global pooling layers
# global MaxPooling layer
global_max_pool2D <- list(
type = "GlobalPooling",
input_layers = 1,
output_layers = 3,
method = "max",
dim_in = c(3, 10, 10), # optional
out_dim = c(3) # optional
)
# global AvgPooling layer
global_avg_pool1D <- list(
type = "GlobalPooling",
input_layers = 1,
output_layers = 3,
method = "average",
dim_in = c(3, 10), # optional
out_dim = c(3) # optional
)
type = "Padding"
)
padding
: This integer vector
specifies the number of padded elements, but its length depends on the
input size:
mode
: The padding mode. Use either
'constant'
(default), 'reflect'
,
'replicate'
or 'circular'
.
value
: The fill value for
'constant'
padding.
Example for a padding layer
type = "Concatenate"
)
dim
: An integer value that describes
the axis over which the inputs are concatenated.đź“ť Note
For this layer the argumentdim_in
is a list of input dimensions.
Example for a concatenation layer
type = "Add"
)
đź“ť Note
For this layer the argumentdim_in
is a list of input dimensions.
Example for an adding layer
input_dim
With the argument input_dim
, input size excluding the
batch dimension is passed. For many packages, this information is
already included in the given model
. In this case, this
argument only acts as a check and throws an error in case of
inconsistency. However, if the input size is not included in the model,
which is, for example, the case for models from the package
torch, it becomes a necessary argument and the correct
size must be passed. All in all, four different forms of input shapes
are accepted, whereby all shapes with channels must always be in the
“channels first” format for internal reasons:
Tabular inputs: If the model has no channels and
is only one-dimensional, the input size can be passed as a single
integer or vector with a single integer, e.g., a dense layer with five
features would have an input shape of 5
or
c(5)
.
Signal inputs: If the model has signals
consisting of a channel and another dimension as input, the input size
can be passed as a vector composed of the number of channels \(C\) and the signal length \(L\) in the channels first format, i.e.,
\(\left(C, L\right)\). For example, for
a 1D convolutional layer with three channels and a signal length of
\(10\) (both formats \(3 \times 10\) and \(10 \times 3\)), the shape
c(3, 10)
must be passed.
Image inputs: If the model has images consisting
of a channel and two other dimensions as input, the input size can be
passed as a vector composed of the number of channels \(C\), the image height \(H\) and width \(W\) in the channels first format, i.e.,
\(\left(C, H, W\right)\). For example,
for a 2D convolutional layer with three channels, image height of \(32\) and width of \(20\) (both formats \(3 \times 32 \times 20\) and \(32 \times 20 \times 3\)), the shape
c(3, 32, 20)
must be passed.
Multiple inputs: If the passed model has multiple
input layers, they can be passed in the correct layer-order in a list of
the shapes from above. For example, for a model with an input layer with
five features and another input layer with images of size \(32\times32\times3\), the list
list(c(5), c(3, 32, 32))
must be passed.
đź“ť Note
With multiple input layers, it is required that the original ordering of the input layers of the passed model matches the ordering ininput_dim
and also the ordering of the input names in theinput_names
argument.
input_names
According to the shapes from the argument input_dim
, the input names
for each layer and dimension can be passed with the optional argument
input_names
. This means that for each integer in
input_dim
a vector of this length is passed with the
labels, which is then summarized for all dimensions in a list. The
labels can be provided both as normal character vectors and as factors
and they will be used for the visualizations in Step 3. Factors can be
used to specify the order of the labels as they will be visualized later
in Step 3. For the
individual input formats, the input names can be passes as described
below:
Tabular inputs: If, for example,
input_dim = c(4)
, a possible value for the input names can
be
Signal inputs: If, for example,
input_dim = c(3, 6)
, a possible value for the input names
can be
Image inputs: If, for example,
input_dim = c(3, 4, 4)
, a possible value for the input
names can be
Multiple inputs: If, for example,
input_dim = list(c(4), c(3, 4, 4))
, a possible value for
the input names can be
đź“ť Notes
The argument for the input names is optional. By default (NULL
) they are generated, i.e., the input names are
list(c("X1", "X2", "X3", ...))
for tabular input layerslist(c("C1", "C2", ...), c("L1", "L2", ...))
for 1D input layerslist(c("C1", "C2", ...), c("H1", "H2", ...), c("W1", "W2", ...))
for 2D input layers.
output_names
The optional argument output_names
can be used to define
the names of the outputs for each output layer analog to
input_names
for the inputs. During the initialization of
the Converter
instance, the output size is calculated and
stored in the field output_dim
, which is structured in the
same way as the argument input_dim
. This results in the
structure of the argument output_names
analogous to the
argument input_names
, i.e., a vector of labels, a factor
or, in case of several output layers, a list of label vectors or
factors. For example, for an output layer with three nodes, the
following list of labels can be passed:
c("First output node", "second one", "last output node")
# or as a factor
factor(c("First output node", "second one", "last output node"),
levels = c("last output node", "First output node", "second one", )
)
For a model with two output layers (two nodes in the first and four in the second), the following input would be valid:
Since it is an optional argument, the labels
c("Y1", "Y2", "Y3", ...)
are generated with the default
value NULL
for each output layer.
dtype
This argument defines the numerical floating-point number’s precision
with which all internal calculations are performed. Accepted are
currently 32-bit floating point ("float"
the default value)
and 64-bit floating point numbers ("double"
). All weights,
constants and inputs are then converted accordingly into the data format
torch_float()
or torch_double()
.
đź“ť Note
At this point, this decision is especially crucial for exact comparisons, and if the precision is too inaccurate, errors could occur. See the following example:
We create two random \(10 \times 10\) matrices \(A\) and \(B\):
Now it can happen that the results of functions like
torch_mm
and a manual calculation differ:
# result of first row and first column after matrix multiplication
res1 <- torch_mm(A, B)[1, 1]
# calculation by hand
res2 <- sum(A[1, ] * B[, 1])
# difference:
res1 - res2
#> torch_tensor
#> -4.76837e-07
#> [ CPUFloatType{} ]
This is an expected behavior, which is explained in detail in the
PyTorch documentation here.
But you can reduce the error by using the double precision with
torch_double()
:
torch_manual_seed(123)
A <- torch_randn(10, 10, dtype = torch_double())
B <- torch_randn(10, 10, dtype = torch_double())
# result of first row and first column after matrix multiplication
res1 <- torch_mm(A, B)[1, 1]
# calculation by hand
res2 <- sum(A[1, ] * B[, 1])
# difference:
res1 - res2
#> torch_tensor
#> -4.44089e-16
#> [ CPUDoubleType{} ]
save_model_as_list
As already described in the introduction
vignette, a given model is first converted to a list and then the
torch model is created from it. By default, however,
this list is not stored in the Converter
object, since this
requires a lot of memory for large models and is otherwise not used
further. With the logical argument save_model_as_list
, this
list can be stored in the field model_as_list
for further
investigations. For example, this list can again be used as a model for
a new Converter
instance.
After an instance of the Converter
class has been
successfully created, the most important arguments and results are
stored in the fields of the R6 object. The existing fields are explained
briefly in the following:
model
: This field contains the
torch-converted model based on the module
ConvertedModel
(see ?ConvertedModel
for more
information) containing the model with pre-implemented feature
attribution methods.
input_dim
: This field is more or less a copy of the
argument input_dim
of the Converter
object,
only unified that it is always a list of the input shapes for each input
layer, i.e., the argument input_dim = c(4)
turns into
list(c(4))
.
input_names
: Analog to the field
input_dim
, the field input_names
contains the
input labels of the Converter
argument
input_names
, but as a list of the label lists for each
input layer, i.e., the argument
input_names = list(c("C1", "C2"), c("A", "B"))
turns into
list(list(c("C1", "C2"), c("A", "B")))
.
output_dim
: This field contains a list of the
calculated output shapes of each output layer.
output_names
: Analog to the field
input_names
but for the argument
output_names
.
model_as_list
: The given model converted to a list
(see argument
save_model_as_list
for more information).
Let’s consider again the model from Example 2 in the keras section (make sure that
the model keras_model_concat
is loaded!):
# Convert the model and save the model as a list
converter <- convert(keras_model_concat, save_model_as_list = TRUE)
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
#> Skipping Dropout ...
# Get the field `input_dim`
converter$input_dim
#> [[1]]
#> [1] 3 10 10
#>
#> [[2]]
#> [1] 20
As you can see, the model has two input layers. The first one is for images of shape \(3 \times 10 \times 10\) and the second layer for dense inputs of shape \(20\). For example, we can now examine whether the converted model provides the same output as the original model:
# create input in the format "channels last"
x <- list(
array(rnorm(3 * 10 * 10), dim = c(1, 10, 10, 3)),
array(rnorm(20), dim = c(1, 20))
)
# output of the original model
y_true <- as.array(keras_model_concat(x))
# output of the torch-converted model (the data 'x' is in the format channels
# last, hence we need to set the argument 'channels_first = FALSE')
y <- as.array(converter$model(x, channels_first = FALSE)[[1]])
# mean squared error
mean((y - y_true)**2)
#> [1] 6.661338e-16
Since we did not pass any arguments for the input and output names,
they were generated and stored in the list format in the
input_names
and output_names
fields. Remember
that in these fields, regardless of the number of input or output
layers, there is always an outer list for the layers and then inner
lists for the layer’s dimensions.
# get the calculated output dimension
str(converter$output_dim)
#> List of 1
#> $ : int 3
# get the generated output names (one layer with three output nodes)
str(converter$output_names)
#> List of 1
#> $ :List of 1
#> ..$ : Factor w/ 3 levels "Y1","Y2","Y3": 1 2 3
# get the generated input names
str(converter$input_names)
#> List of 2
#> $ :List of 3
#> ..$ : Factor w/ 3 levels "C1","C2","C3": 1 2 3
#> ..$ : Factor w/ 10 levels "H1","H2","H3",..: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
#> ..$ : Factor w/ 10 levels "W1","W2","W3",..: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
#> $ :List of 1
#> ..$ : Factor w/ 20 levels "X1","X2","X3",..: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...
Since we have set the save_model_as_list
argument to
TRUE
, we can now get the model as a list, which has the
structure described in the section Model
as named list. This list can now be modified as you wish and it can
also be used again as a model for a new Converter
instance.
# get the mode as a list
model_as_list <- converter$model_as_list
# print the fourth layer
str(model_as_list$layers[[4]])
#> List of 11
#> $ type : chr "Conv2D"
#> $ weight :Float [1:4, 1:5, 1:2, 1:2]
#> $ bias :Float [1:4]
#> $ activation_name: chr "softplus"
#> $ dim_in : int [1:3] 5 5 5
#> $ dim_out : int [1:3] 4 4 4
#> $ stride : int [1:2] 1 1
#> $ padding : int [1:4] 0 0 0 0
#> $ dilation : int [1:2] 1 1
#> $ input_layers : int 3
#> $ output_layers : int 5
# let's change the activation function to "relu"
model_as_list$layers[[4]]$activation_name <- "relu"
# create a Converter object with the modified model
converter_modified <- convert(model_as_list)
# now, we get different results for the same input because of the relu activation
converter_modified$model(x, channels_first = FALSE)
#> [[1]]
#> torch_tensor
#> 0.2951 0.2418 0.4631
#> [ CPUFloatType{1,3} ]
converter$model(x, channels_first = FALSE)
#> [[1]]
#> torch_tensor
#> 0.3834 0.1791 0.4375
#> [ CPUFloatType{1,3} ]
In addition, the default print()
function for R6 classes
has been overwritten so that all important properties, fields and
contents of the converter object can be displayed in a summarized
form:
# print the Converter instance
converter
#>
#> ── Converter (innsight) ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
#> Fields:
#> • input_dim: (*, 3, 10, 10), (*, 20)
#> • output_dim: (*, 3)
#> • input_names:
#> • Input layer 1:
#> ─ Channels (3): C1, C2, C3
#> ─ Image height (10): H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8, H9, H10
#> ─ Image width (10): W1, W2, W3, W4, W5, W6, W7, W8, W9, W10
#> • Input layer 2:
#> Warning in `[<-.factor`(`*tmp*`, length(x), value = "..."): ungĂĽltiges Faktorniveau, NA
#> erzeugt
#> ─ Feature (20): X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6, X7, X8, X9, X10, X11, X12, X13, X14,
#> X15, NA
#> • output_names:
#> ─ Output node/Class (3): Y1, Y2, Y3
#> • model_as_list: included
#> • model (class ConvertedModel):
#> 1. Skipping_Layer: input_dim: (*, 3, 10, 10), output_dim: (*, 3, 10, 10)
#> 2. Conv2D_Layer: input_dim: (*, 3, 10, 10), output_dim: (*, 5, 10, 10)
#> 3. AvgPool2D_Layer: input_dim: (*, 5, 10, 10), output_dim: (*, 5, 5, 5)
#> 4. Conv2D_Layer: input_dim: (*, 5, 5, 5), output_dim: (*, 4, 4, 4)
#> 5. Skipping_Layer: input_dim: (*, 4, 4, 4), output_dim: (*, 4, 4, 4)
#> 6. Flatten_Layer: input_dim: (*, 4, 4, 4), output_dim: (*, 64)
#> 7. Skipping_Layer: input_dim: (*, 20), output_dim: (*, 20)
#> 8. Concatenate_Layer: input_dim: (*, 64), (*, 20), output_dim: (*, 84)
#> 9. Dense_Layer: input_dim: (*, 84), output_dim: (*, 50)
#> 10. Skipping_Layer: input_dim: (*, 50), output_dim: (*, 50)
#> 11. Dense_Layer: input_dim: (*, 50), output_dim: (*, 3)
#>
#> ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
The innsight package provides the most popular
feature attribution methods in a unified framework. Besides the
individual method-specific variations, the overall structure of each
method is nevertheless the same. This structure with the most important
arguments is shown in the following and internally realized by the super
class InterpretingMethod
(see
?InterpretingMethod
for more information), whereby the
method-specific arguments are explained further below with the
respective methods realized as inherited R6 classes. The basic call of a
method looks like this:
# Apply the selected method
method <- Method$new(converter, data,
channels_first = TRUE,
output_idx = NULL,
output_label = NULL,
ignore_last_act = TRUE,
verbose = interactive(),
dtype = "float"
)
In this case as well, all methods are implemented as R6 classes.
However, here we have also implemented helper functions for
initialization, allowing the application of a method through a simple
method call instead of $new()
. These methods all start with
the prefix run_
and end with the corresponding acronym for
the method (e.g., run_grad()
).
converter
The Converter
object from the first step is one of the crucial
elements for the application of a selected method because it converted
the original model into a torch structure necessary for
innsight in which the methods are pre-implemented in
each layer.
data
In addition to the converter object, the input data is also essential as it will be analyzed and explained using the methods provided at the end. Accepted are data as:
Base R data types like matrix
, array
,
data.frame
or other array-like formats of size \(\left(\text{batch_size},
\text{input_dim}\right)\). These formats can be used mainly when
the model has only one input layer. Internally, the data is converted to
an array using the as.array
function and stored as a
torch_tensor
in the given dtype
afterward.
torch_tensor
: The converting process described in
the last point can also be skipped by directly passing the data as a
torch_tensor
of size \(\left(\text{batch_size},
\text{input_dim}\right)\).
list
: You can also pass a list with the
corresponding input data according to the upper points for each input
layer.
đź“ť Note
The argument data is a necessary argument only for the local interpretation methods. Otherwise, it is unnecessary, e.g., the global variant of the Connection Weights method can be used without data.
channels_first
This argument tells the package where the channel axis for images and
signals is located in the input data. Internally, all calculations are
performed with the channels in the second position after the batch
dimension (“channels first”), e.g., c(10,3,32,32)
for a batch of ten images with three channels and a height and width of
\(32\) pixels. Thus input data in the
format “channels last” (i.e., c(10,32,32,3)
for
the previous example) must be transformed accordingly. If the given
data
has no channel axis, use the default value
TRUE
.
output_idx
These indices specify the model’s output nodes for which the method is to be applied. For the sake of models with multiple output layers, the method object gives the following possibilities to select the indices of the output nodes in the individual output layers:
A vector of indices: If the model has only one output layer, the
values correspond to the indices of the output nodes, e.g.,
c(1,3,4)
for the first, third and fourth output node. If
there are multiple output layers, the indices of the output nodes from
the first output layer are considered.
A list of index vectors: If the method is to be applied to output
nodes from different layers, a list can be passed that specifies the
desired indices of the output nodes for each output layer. Unwanted
output layers have the entry NULL
instead of a vector of
indices, e.g., list(NULL, c(1,3))
for the first and third
output node in the second output layer.
NULL
(default): The method is applied to all output
nodes in the first output layer but is limited to the first ten as the
calculations become more computationally expensive for more output
nodes.
output_label
These values specify the output nodes for which the method is to be
applied and can be used as an alternative to the argument
output_idx
. Only values that were previously passed with
the argument output_names
in the converter
can
be used. In order to allow models with multiple output layers, there are
the following possibilities to select the names of the output nodes in
the individual output layers:
A character
vector or factor
of labels:
If the model has only one output layer, the values correspond to the
labels of the output nodes named in the passed Converter
object, e.g., c("a", "c", "d")
for the first, third and
fourth output node if the output names are
c("a", "b", "c", "d")
. If there are multiple output layers,
the names of the output nodes from the first output layer are
considered.
A list
of charactor
/factor
vectors of labels: If the method is to be applied to output nodes from
different layers, a list can be passed that specifies the desired labels
of the output nodes for each output layer. Unwanted output layers have
the entry NULL
instead of a vector of labels, e.g.,
list(NULL, c("a", "c"))
for the first and third output node
in the second output layer.
NULL
(default): The method is applied to all output
nodes in the first output layer but is limited to the first ten as the
calculations become more computationally expensive for more output
nodes.
ignore_last_act
Set this logical value to include the last activation function for
each output layer, or not (default: TRUE
). In practice, the
last activation (especially for softmax activation) is often
omitted.
dtype
This argument defines the numerical precision with which all internal
calculations are performed. Accepted are currently 32-bit floating point
("float"
the default value) and 64-bit floating point
numbers ("double"
). All weights, constants and inputs are
then converted accordingly into the data format
torch_float()
or torch_double()
. See the argument dtype
in the
Converter
object for more details.
As described earlier, all implemented methods inherit from the
InterpretingMethod
super class. But each method has
method-specific arguments and different objectives. To make them a bit
more understandable, they are all explained with the help of the
following simple example model with ReLU activation in the first,
hyperbolic tangent in the last layer and only one in- and output
node:
model <- list(
input_dim = 1,
input_nodes = 1,
input_names = c("x"),
output_nodes = 2,
output_names = c("y"),
layers = list(
list(
type = "Dense",
input_layers = 0,
output_layers = 2,
weight = matrix(c(1, 0.8, 2), nrow = 3),
bias = c(0, -0.4, -1.2),
activation_name = "relu"
),
list(
type = "Dense",
input_layers = 1,
output_layers = -1,
weight = matrix(c(1, -1, 1), nrow = 1),
bias = c(0),
activation_name = "tanh"
)
)
)
converter <- convert(model)
One of the first and most intuitive methods for interpreting neural networks is the Gradients method introduced by Simonyan et al. (2013), also known as Vanilla Gradients or Saliency maps. This method computes the gradients of the selected output with respect to the input variables. Therefore the resulting relevance values indicate prediction-sensitive variables, i.e., those variables that can be locally perturbed the least to change the outcome the most. Mathematically, this method can be described by the following formula for the input variable \(x_i\) with \(x \in \mathbb{R}^n\), the model \(f:\mathbb{R}^n \to \mathbb{R}^C\) and the output \(y_c = f(x)_c\) of class \(c\): \[ \text{Gradient}(x)_i^c = \frac{\partial\ f(x)_c}{\partial\ x_i} = \frac{\partial\ y_c}{\partial\ x_i} \]
As described in the introduction of this section, the corresponding
innsight-method Gradient
inherits from the
super class InterpretingMethod
, meaning that we need to
change the term Method
to Gradient
.
Alternatively, an object of the class Gradient
can also be
created using the mentioned helper function run_grad()
,
which does not require prior knowledge of R6 objects. The only
model-specific argument is times_input
, which can be used
to switch between the two methods Gradient (default
FALSE
) and Gradient\(\times\)Input (TRUE
). For
more information on the method Gradient\(\times\)Input see this
subsection.
# R6 class syntax
grad <- Gradient$new(converter, data,
times_input = FALSE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
# Using the helper function
grad <- run_grad(converter, data,
times_input = FALSE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
In this example, we want to describe the data point \(x_1 = 0.45\) with the Gradient method. In principle, the slope of the tangent in \(x_1\) is calculated and thus the local rate of change, which in this case is \(\tanh'(x_1) = \frac{1}{\cosh(x_1)^2} = 0.822\) (see the red line in Fig. 2). Assuming that the function behaves linearly overall, increasing \(x\) by one raises the output by \(0.822\). In general, however, neural networks are highly nonlinear, so this interpretation is only valid for very small changes of \(x_1\) as you can see in Fig. 2.
With innsight, this method is applied as follows and we receive the same result:
The SmoothGrad method, introduced by Smilkov et al. (2017), addresses a significant problem of the basic Gradient method. As described in the previous subsection, gradients locally assume a linear behavior, but this is generally no longer the case for deep neural networks. These have large fluctuations and abruptly change their gradients, making the interpretations of the gradient worse and potentially misleading. Smilkov et al. proposed that instead of calculating only the gradient in \(x\), compute the gradients of randomly perturbed copies of \(x\) and determine the mean gradient from that. To use the SmoothGrad method to obtain relevance values for the individual components \(x_i \in \mathbb{R}\) of an instance \(x \in \mathbb{R^n}\), we first generate \(K \in \mathbb{N}\) realizations of a multivariate Gaussian distribution \(p = \mathcal{N}(0, \sigma^2)\) describing the random perturbations, i.e., \(\varepsilon^1, \ldots, \varepsilon^K \sim p\). Then the empirical mean of the gradients for variable \(x_i\) and output index \(c\) can be calculated as follows:
\[ \text{SmoothGrad}(x)_i^c = \frac{1}{K} \sum_{j = 1}^K \frac{\partial\ f(x + \varepsilon^j)_c}{\partial\ x_i + \varepsilon_i^j} \approx \mathbb{E}_{\varepsilon \sim p}\left[ \frac{\partial\ f(x + \varepsilon)_c}{\partial\ x_i + \varepsilon_i^j}\right] \]
As described in the introduction of this section, the
innsight method SmoothGrad
inherits from
the super class InterpretingMethod
, meaning that we need to
change the term Method
to SmoothGrad
or use
the helper function run_smoothgrad()
for initializing an
object of class SmoothGrad
. In addition, there are the
following three model-specific arguments:
n
(default: 50
): This integer value
specifies how many perturbations will be used to calculate the mean
gradient, i.e., the \(K\) from the
formula above. However, it must be noted that the computational effort
increases by a factor of n
compared to the Gradient method
since the simple Gradient method is used n
times instead of
once. In return, the accuracy of the estimator increases with a larger
n
.
noise_level
(default: 0.1
): With this
argument, the strength of the spread of the Gaussian distribution can be
given as a percentage, i.e., noise_level
\(=\frac{\sigma}{\max(x)-\min(x)}\).
times_input
(default: FALSE
): Similar
to the Gradient
method, this argument can be used to switch
between the two methods SmoothGrad (FALSE
) and
SmoothGrad\(\times\)Input
(TRUE
). For more information on the method
SmoothGrad\(\times\)Input see
this
subsection.
# R6 class syntax
smoothgrad <- SmoothGrad$new(converter, data,
n = 50,
noise_level = 0.1,
times_input = FALSE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
# Using the helper function
smoothgrad <- run_smoothgrad(converter, data,
n = 50,
noise_level = 0.1,
times_input = FALSE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
We want to describe the data point \(x_1 = 0.6\) with the method SmoothGrad. As you can see in Figure 3, this point does not have a unique gradient because it is something around \(0.15\) from the left and something around \(1.66\) from the right. In such situations, SmoothGrad comes in handy. As described before, the input \(x_1\) is slightly perturbed by a Gaussian distribution and then the mean gradient is calculated. The individual gradients of the perturbed copies are visualized in blue in Figure 3 with the red line representing the mean gradient.
With innsight, this method is applied as follows:
The methods Gradient\(\times\)Input and SmoothGrad\(\times\)Input are as simple as they sound: the gradients are calculated as in the gradient section and then multiplied by the respective input. They were introduced by Shrikumar et al. (2016) and have a well-grounded mathematical background despite their simple idea. The basic idea is to decompose the output according to its relevance to each input variable, i.e., we get variable-wise additive effects
\[ \tag{1} f(x)_c = \sum_{i = 1}^n R_i. \]
Mathematically, this method is based on the first-order Taylor decomposition. Assuming that the function \(f\) is continuously differentiable in \(x \in \mathbb{R}^n\), a remainder term \(\varepsilon(f,z,x):\mathbb{R}^n \to \mathbb{R}\) with \(\lim_{z \to x} \varepsilon(f, z, x) = 0\) exists such that
\[ \begin{align} f(z) &= f(x) + \nabla_x\ f(x)(z-x)^T + \varepsilon(f, z, x)\\ &= f(x) + \sum_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial\ f(x)}{\partial\ x_i} (z_i - x_i) + \varepsilon(f, z, x), \quad z\in \mathbb{R}^n. \tag{2} \end{align} \] The first-order Taylor formula thus describes a linear approximation of the function \(f\) at the point \(x\) since only the first derivatives are considered. Consequently, a highly nonlinear function \(f\) is well approximated in a small neighborhood around \(x\). For larger distances from \(x\), sufficient small values of the residual term are not guaranteed anymore. The Gradient\(\times\)Input method now considers the data point \(x\) and sets \(z = 0\). In addition, the residual term and the summand \(f(0)_c\) are ignored, which then results in the following approximation of \(f(x)_c\) in variable-wise relevances
\[ f(x)_c \approx \sum_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial\ f(x)_c}{\partial\ x_i} \cdot x_i, \quad \text{hence}\\ \text{Gradient$\times$Input}(x)_i^c = \frac{\partial\ f(x)_c}{\partial\ x_i} \cdot x_i. \]
\[ \begin{align} &f(z)_c = f(x)_c + \sum_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial\ f(x)_c}{\partial\ x_i} (z_i - x_i) + \varepsilon(f, z, x)\\ \Leftrightarrow\quad & f(x)_c = f(z)_c - \sum_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial\ f(x)_c}{\partial\ x_i} (z_i - x_i) - \varepsilon(f, z, x)\\ \Leftrightarrow\quad & f(x)_c = f(z)_c + \sum_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial\ f(x)_c}{\partial\ x_i} (x_i - z_i) - \varepsilon(f, z, x) \end{align} \] Hence, we get for \(z = 0\) and after ignoring the remainder term and the value \(f(0)_c\) \[ \begin{align} f(x)_c &= f(0)_c + \sum_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial\ f(x)_c}{\partial\ x_i} x_i - \varepsilon(f, z, x) \tag{3}\\ &\approx \sum_{i = 1}^n \frac{\partial\ f(x)_c}{\partial\ x_i} x_i \end{align} \]
Analogously, this multiplication is also applied to the SmoothGrad method in order to compensate for local fluctuations: \[ \text{SmoothGrad$\times$Input}(x)_i^c = \frac{1}{K} \sum_{j = 1}^K \frac{\partial\ f(x + \varepsilon^j)_c}{\partial\ x_i + \varepsilon_i^j} \cdot (x_i + \varepsilon_i^j),\quad \varepsilon^1, \ldots, \varepsilon^K \sim \mathcal{N}(0,\sigma^2). \]
Both methods are variants of the respective gradient methods
Gradient
and SmoothGrad
and also have the
corresponding model-specific arguments and helper functions for the
initialization. These variants can be chosen with the argument
times_input
:
# the "x Input" variant of method "Gradient"
grad_x_input <- Gradient$new(converter, data,
times_input = TRUE,
... # other arguments of method "Gradient"
)
# the same using the corresponding helper function
grad_x_input <- run_grad(converter, data,
times_input = TRUE,
... # other arguments of method "Gradient"
)
# the "x Input" variant of method "SmoothGrad"
smoothgrad_x_input <- SmoothGrad$new(converter, data,
times_input = TRUE,
... # other arguments of method "SmoothGrad"
)
# the same using the corresponding helper function
smoothgrad_x_input <- run_smoothgrad(converter, data,
times_input = TRUE,
... # other arguments of method "SmoothGrad"
)
Gradient\(\times\)Input:
Now let us describe the data point \(x_1 = 0.49\) using the model defined in this chapter’s introduction. For this model holds the equation \(f(0) = 0\); therefore, the approximation error is only the negative value of the remainder term at \(0\) (as seen in Eq. 3). In Figure 4, the Taylor approximation is drawn in red and at position \(0\), you can also see the value of the remainder term (because all other summands are zero). At the same time, the red dot describes the result of the Gradient\(\times\)Input method, which indeed deviates from the actual value only by the negative of the remainder term at position \(0\).
With innsight, this method is applied as follows:
data <- matrix(c(0.49), 1, 1)
# Apply method
grad_x_input <- run_grad(converter, data,
times_input = TRUE,
ignore_last_act = FALSE # include the tanh activation
)
# get result
get_result(grad_x_input)
#> , , y
#>
#> x
#> [1,] 0.3889068
SmoothGrad\(\times\)Input:
It is also possible to use the SmoothGrad\(\times\)Input method to perturb the input \(x_1 = 0.49\) a bit and return an average value of the individual Gradient\(\times\)Input results. Figure 5 shows the individual linear approximations of the first-order Taylors for the Gaussian perturbed copies of \(x_1\), and the blue dots describe the respective Gradient\(\times\)Input values. The red dot represents the mean value, i.e., the value of the SmoothGrad\(\times\)Input method at \(x_1 = 0.49\).
With innsight, this method is applied as follows:
The LRP method was first introduced by Bach et al. (2015) and has a similar goal to the Gradient\(\times\)Input approach explained in the last section: decompose the output into variable-wise relevances according to Eq. 1. The difference is that the prediction \(f(x)_c = y_c\) is redistributed layer by layer from the output node back to the inputs according to the weights and pre-activations. This is done by so-called relevance messages \(r_{i \leftarrow j}^{(l, l+1)}\), which can be defined by a rule on redistributing the upper-layer relevance \(R_j^{l +1}\) to the lower-layer \(R_i^{l}\). In the package innsight, the following commonly used rules are defined (\(i\) is an index of a node in layer \(l\) and \(j\) an index of a node in layer \(l+1\)):
The simple rule (also known as
LRP-0)
This is the most basic rule on which all other rules are more or less
based. The relevances are redistributed to the lower layers according to
the ratio between local and global pre-activation. Let \(x_i\) the inputs, \(w_{i,j}\) the weights and \(b_j\) the bias vector of layer \(l\) and \(R_j^{(l+1)}\) the upper-layer relevance,
then the simple rule is defined as \[
r_{i \leftarrow j}^{(l, l+1)} = \frac{x_i\, w_{i,j}}{z_j} \, R_j^{l
+1} \quad \text{with} \quad z_j = b_j + \sum_{k} x_k\, w_{k,j}.
\]
The \(\varepsilon\)-rule (also known as
LRP-\(\epsilon\))
One problem with the simple rule is that it is numerically unstable when
the global pre-activation \(z_j\)
vanishes and causes a division by zero. This problem is solved in the
\(\varepsilon\)-rule by adding a
stabilizer \(\varepsilon > 0\) that
moves the denominator away from zero, i.e., \[
r_{i \leftarrow j}^{(l, l+1)} = \frac{x_i\, w_{i,j}}{z_j +
\text{sign}(z_j)\, \varepsilon}\, R_j^{l +1}.
\]
The \(\alpha\)-\(\beta\)-rule (also known as
LRP-\(\alpha \beta\))
Another way to avoid this numerical instability is by treating the
positive and negative pre-activations separately. In this case, positive
and negative values cannot cancel each other out, i.e., a vanishing
denominator also results in a vanishing numerator. Moreover, this rule
allows choosing a weighting for the positive and negative relevances,
which is done with the parameters \(\alpha,
\beta \in \mathbb{R}\) satisfying \(\alpha + \beta = 1\). The \(\alpha\)-\(\beta\)-rule is defined as \[
r_{i \leftarrow j}^{(l, l+1)} = \left(\alpha \frac{(x_i\,
w_{i,j})^+}{z_j^+} + \beta \frac{(x_i\, w_{i,j})^-}{z_j^-}\right)\,
R_j^{l +1}\\
\text{with}\quad z_j^\pm = (b_j)^\pm + \sum_k (x_k\, w_{k,j})^\pm,\quad
(\cdot)^+ = \max(\cdot, 0),\quad
(\cdot)^- = \min(\cdot, 0).
\]
For any of the rules described above, the relevance of the lower-layer nodes \(R_i^{l}\) is determined by summing up all incoming relevance messages \(r_{i \leftarrow j}^{(l, l +1)}\) into the respective node of index \(i\), i.e., \[ R_i^{l} = \sum_j r_{i \leftarrow j}^{(l, l +1)}. \]
This procedure is repeated layer by layer until one gets to the input layer and consequently gets the relevances for each input variable. A visual overview of the entire method using the simple rule as an example is given in Fig. 6.
đź“ť Note
At this point, it must be mentioned that the LRP variants do not lead to an exact decomposition of the output since some of the relevance is absorbed by the bias terms. This is because the bias is included in the pre-activation but does not appear in any of the numerators.
Analogous to the previous methods, the innsight
method LRP
inherits from the InterpretingMetod
super class and thus all arguments. In addition, there are the following
method-specific arguments for this method:
rule_name
(default: "simple"
): This
argument can be used to select the rule for the relevance messages.
Implemented are the three rules described above, i.e., simple rule
("simple"
), \(\varepsilon\)-rule ("epsilon"
)
and \(\alpha\)-\(\beta\)-rule ("alpha_beta"
).
However, a named list can also be passed to assign one of these three
rules to each implemented layer type individually. Layers not specified
in this list then use the default value "simple"
. For
example, with
list(Dense_Layer = "epsilon", Conv2D_Layer = "alpha_beta")
the simple rule is used for all dense layers and the \(\alpha\)-\(\beta\)-rule is applied to all 2D
convolutional layers. The other layers not mentioned use the default
rule. In addition, for normalization layers like
'BatchNorm_Layer'
, the rule "pass"
is
implemented as well, which ignores such layers in the backward pass. You
can set the rule for the following layer types:
'Dense_Layer'
, 'Conv1D_Layer'
,
'Conv2D_Layer'
, 'BatchNorm_Layer'
,
'AvgPool1D_Layer'
, 'AvgPool2D_Layer'
,
'MaxPool1D_Layer'
and 'MaxPool2D_Layer'
rule_param
: The meaning of this argument depends on
the selected rule. For the simple rule, for example, it has no effect.
In contrast, this numeric argument sets the value of \(\varepsilon\) for the \(\varepsilon\)-rule and the value of \(\alpha\) for the \(\alpha\)-\(\beta\)-rule (remember: \(\beta = 1 - \alpha\)). Passing
NULL
defaults to 0.01
for \(\varepsilon\) or 0.5
for \(\alpha\). Similar to the argument
rule_name
, this can also be a named list that individually
assigns a rule parameter to each layer type.
winner_takes_all
: This logical argument is only
relevant for models with a MaxPooling layer. Since many zeros are
produced during the backward pass due to the selection of the maximum
value in the pooling kernel, another variant is implemented, which
treats a MaxPooling as an AveragePooling layer in the backward pass to
overcome the problem of too many zero relevances. With the default value
TRUE
, the whole upper-layer relevance is passed to the
maximum value in each pooling window. Otherwise, if FALSE
,
the relevance is distributed equally among all nodes in a pooling
window.
# R6 class syntax
lrp <- LRP$new(converter, data,
rule_name = "simple",
rule_param = NULL,
winner_takes_all = TRUE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
# Using the helper function for initialization
lrp <- run_lrp(converter, data,
rule_name = "simple",
rule_param = NULL,
winner_takes_all = TRUE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
First, let’s look again at the result at the point \(x_1 = 0.49\), which was about \(0.3889\) when approximated with the Gradient\(\times\)Input method. For LRP with the simple rule, we get \(0.4542\) which exactly matches the actual value of \(f(x_1)\). This is mainly due to the fact that for an input of \(x_1\), only the top neuron from Fig. 1 is activated and it does not have a bias term. However, if we now use an input that activates a neuron with a bias term (\(x_2 = 0.6\)), there will be an approximation error (for \(x_2\) it’s \(-0.3675\)) since it absorbs some of the relevance. See the code below:
# We can analyze multiple inputs simultaneously
data <- matrix(
c(
0.49, # only neuron without bias term is activated
0.6 # neuron with bias term is activated
),
ncol = 1
)
# Apply LRP with simple rule
lrp <- run_lrp(converter, data,
ignore_last_act = FALSE
)
get_result(lrp)
#> , , y
#>
#> x
#> [1,] 0.4542146
#> [2,] 0.1102428
# get approximation error
matrix(lrp$get_result()) - as_array(converter$model(torch_tensor(data))[[1]])
#> [,1]
#> [1,] -1.877546e-06
#> [2,] -3.674572e-01
The individual LRP variants can also be considered as a function in the input variable \(x\), which is shown in Fig. 7 with the true model \(f\) in black.
One method that, to some extent, echoes the idea of LRP is the so-called Deep Learning Important Features (DeepLift) method introduced by Shrikumar et al. in 2017. It behaves similarly to LRP in a layer-by-layer backpropagation fashion from a selected output node back to the input variables. However, it incorporates a reference value \(\tilde{x}\) to compare the relevances with each other. Hence, the relevances of DeepLift represent the relative effect of the outputs of the instance to be explained \(f(x)_c\) and the output of the reference value \(f(\tilde{x})_c\), i.e., \(f(x)_c - f(\tilde{x})_c\). This difference eliminates the bias term in the relevance messages so that no more relevance is absorbed and we have an exact variable-wise decomposition of \(\Delta y = f(x)_c - f(\tilde{x})_c\). In addition, the authors presented two rules to propagate relevances through the activation part of the individual layers, namely Rescale and RevealCancel rule. The Rescale rule simply scales the contribution to the difference from reference output according to the value of the activation function. The RevealCancel rule considers the average impact after adding the negative or positive contribution revealing dependencies missed by other approaches.
Analogous to the previous methods, the innsight
method DeepLift
inherits from the
InterpretingMetod
super class and thus all arguments.
Alternatively, an object of the class DeepLift
can also be
created using the helper function run_deeplift()
, which
does not require prior knowledge of R6 objects. In addition, there are
the following method-specific arguments for this method:
x_ref
(default: NULL
): This argument
describes the reference input \(\tilde{x}\) for the DeepLift method. This
value must have the same format as the input data of the passed model to
the converter class, i.e.,
array
, data.frame
,
torch_tensor
or array-like format of size \(\left(1, \text{input_dim}\right)\) orlist
with the corresponding input data (according to
the upper point) for each of the input layers.NULL
to
take only zeros as reference input.rule_name
(default: 'rescale'
): Name of
the applied rule to calculate the contributions. Use either
'rescale'
or 'reveal_cancel'
.
winner_takes_all
: This logical argument is only
relevant for MaxPooling layers and is otherwise ignored. With this layer
type, it is possible that the position of the maximum values in the
pooling kernel of the normal input \(x\) and the reference input \(\tilde{x}\) may not match, which leads to a
violation of the summation-to-delta property. To overcome this problem,
another variant is implemented, which treats a MaxPooling layer as an
AveragePooling layer in the backward pass only, leading to a uniform
distribution of the upper-layer contribution to the lower
layer.
# R6 class syntax
deeplift <- DeepLift$new(converter, data,
x_ref = NULL,
rule_name = "rescale",
winner_takes_all = TRUE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
# Using the helper function for initialization
deeplift <- run_deeplift(converter, data,
x_ref = NULL,
rule_name = "rescale",
winner_takes_all = TRUE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
In this example, let’s consider the point \(x = 0.55\) and the reference point \(\tilde{x} = 0.1\). With the help of the model defined previously, the respective outputs are \(y = f(x) = 0.4699\) and \(\tilde{y} = f(\tilde{x}) = 0.0997\). The DeepLift method now generates an exact variable-wise decomposition of the so-called difference-from-reference value \(\Delta y = y - \tilde{y} = 0.3702772\). Since there is only one input feature in this case, the entire value should be assigned to it:
# Create data
x <- matrix(c(0.55))
x_ref <- matrix(c(0.1))
# Apply method DeepLift with rescale rule
deeplift <- run_deeplift(converter, x, x_ref = x_ref, ignore_last_act = FALSE)
# Get result
get_result(deeplift)
#> , , y
#>
#> x
#> [1,] 0.3702772
This example is an extremely simple model, so we will test this
method on a slightly larger model and the Iris dataset (see
?iris
):
library(neuralnet)
set.seed(42)
# Crate model with package 'neuralnet'
model <- neuralnet(Species ~ ., iris, hidden = 5, linear.output = FALSE)
# Step 1: Create 'Converter'
conv <- convert(model)
# Step 2: Apply DeepLift (reveal-cancel rule)
x_ref <- matrix(colMeans(iris[, -5]), nrow = 1) # use colmeans as reference value
deeplift <- run_deeplift(conv, iris[, -5],
x_ref = x_ref, ignore_last_act = FALSE,
rule_name = "reveal_cancel"
)
# Verify exact decomposition
y <- predict(model, iris[, -5])
y_ref <- predict(model, x_ref[rep(1, 150), ])
delta_y <- y - y_ref
summed_decomposition <- apply(get_result(deeplift), c(1, 3), FUN = sum) # dim 2 is the input feature dim
# Show the mean squared error
mean((delta_y - summed_decomposition)^2)
#> [1] 6.402983e-15
In the Integrated Gradients method introduced by Sundararajan et al. (2017), the gradients are integrated along a path from the value \(x\) to a reference value \(\tilde{x}\). This integration results, similar to DeepLift, in a decomposition of \(f(x) - f(\tilde{x})\). In this sense, the method uncovers the feature-wise relative effect of the input features on the difference between the prediction \(f(x)\) and the reference prediction \(f(\tilde{x})\). This is archived through the following formula: \[ \text{IntGrad}(x)_i^c = (x - \tilde{x}) \int_{\alpha = 0}^1 \frac{\partial f(\tilde{x} + \alpha (x - \tilde{x}))}{\partial x} d\alpha \] In simpler terms, it calculates how much each feature contributes to a model’s output by tracing a path from a baseline input \(\tilde{x}\) to the actual input \(x\) and measuring the average gradients along that path.
Similar to the other gradient-based methods, by default the
integrated gradient is multiplied by the input to get an approximate
decomposition of \(f(x) -
f(\tilde{x})\). However, with the parameter
times_input
only the gradient describing the output
sensitivity can be returned.
Analogous to the previous methods, the innsight
method IntegratedGradient
inherits from the
InterpretingMetod
super class and thus all arguments.
Alternatively, an object of the class IntegratedGradient
can also be created using the helper function
run_intgrad()
, which does not require prior knowledge of R6
objects. In addition, there are the following method-specific arguments
for this method:
x_ref
(default: NULL
): This argument
describes the reference input \(\tilde{x}\) for the Integrated Gradients
method. This value must have the same format as the input data of the
passed model to the converter class, i.e.,
array
, data.frame
,
torch_tensor
or array-like format of size \(\left(1, \text{input_dim}\right)\) orlist
with the corresponding input data (according to
the upper point) for each of the input layers.NULL
to
take only zeros as reference input.n
(default: 50
): Number of steps for
the approximation of the integration path along \(\alpha\).
times_input
(default: TRUE
): Multiplies
the integrated gradients with the difference of the input features and
the baseline values. By default, the original definition of Integrated
Gradient is applied. However, by setting
times_input = FALSE
only an approximation of the integral
is calculated, which describes the sensitivity of the features to the
output.
# R6 class syntax
intgrad <- IntegratedGradient$new(converter, data,
x_ref = NULL,
n = 50,
times_input = TRUE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
# Using the helper function for initialization
intgrad <- run_intgrad(converter, data,
x_ref = NULL,
n = 50,
times_input = TRUE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
In this example, let’s consider the point \(x = 0.55\) and the reference point \(\tilde{x} = 0.1\). With the help of the model defined previously, the respective outputs are \(y = f(x) = 0.4699\) and \(\tilde{y} = f(\tilde{x}) = 0.0997\). The Integrated Gradient method now generates an approximate variable-wise decomposition of the so-called difference-from-reference value \(\Delta y = y - \tilde{y} = 0.3702772\). Since there is only one input feature in this case, the entire value should be assigned to it:
The Expected Gradients method (Erion et al., 2021), also known as GradSHAP, is a local feature attribution technique which extends the Integrated Gradient method and provides approximate Shapley values. In contrast to Integrated Gradient, it considers not only a single reference value \(\tilde{x}\) but the whole distribution of reference values \(\tilde{X} \sim \tilde{x}\) and averages the Integrated Gradient values over this distribution. Mathematically, the method can be described as follows: \[ \text{ExpGrad}(x)_i^c = \mathbb{E}_{\tilde{x}\sim \tilde{X}, \alpha \sim U(0,1)} \left[(x - \tilde{x}) \times \frac{\partial f(\tilde{x} + \alpha (x - \tilde{x}))}{\partial x} \right] \] These feature-wise values approximate a decomposition of the prediction minus the average prediction in the reference dataset, i.e., \(f(x) - \mathbb{E}_{\tilde{x}}\left[f(\tilde{x}) \right]\). This means, it solves the issue of choosing the right reference value.
Analogous to the previous methods, the innsight
method ExpectedGradient
inherits from the
InterpretingMetod
super class and thus all arguments.
Alternatively, an object of the class ExpectedGradient
can
also be created using the helper function run_expgrad()
,
which does not require prior knowledge of R6 objects. In addition, there
are the following method-specific arguments for this method:
data_ref
(default: NULL
): This argument
describes the reference inputs \(\tilde{x}\) for the Expected Gradients
method. This value must have the same format as the input data of the
passed model to the converter class, i.e.,
array
, data.frame
,
torch_tensor
or array-like format of size \(\left(1, \text{input_dim}\right)\) orlist
with the corresponding input data (according to
the upper point) for each of the input layers.NULL
to
take only zeros as reference input.n
(default: 50
): Number of samples from
the distribution of reference values \(\tilde{x} \sim \tilde{X}\) and number of
samples for the approximation of the integration path along \(\alpha\).
# R6 class syntax
expgrad <- ExpectedGradient$new(converter, data,
data_ref = NULL,
n = 50,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
# Using the helper function for initialization
expgrad <- run_expgrad(converter, data,
x_ref = NULL,
n = 50,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
In the following example, we demonstrate how the Expected Gradient method is applied to the Iris dataset, accurately approximating the difference between the prediction and the mean prediction (adjusted for a very high sample size of \(10\,000\)):
library(neuralnet)
set.seed(42)
# Crate model with package 'neuralnet'
model <- neuralnet(Species ~ ., iris, linear.output = FALSE)
# Step 1: Create 'Converter'
conv <- convert(model)
# Step 2: Apply Expected Gradient
expgrad <- run_expgrad(conv, iris[c(1, 60), -5],
data_ref = iris[, -5], ignore_last_act = FALSE,
n = 10000
)
# Verify exact decomposition
y <- predict(model, iris[, -5])
delta_y <- y[c(1, 60), ] - rbind(colMeans(y), colMeans(y))
summed_decomposition <- apply(get_result(expgrad), c(1, 3), FUN = sum) # dim 2 is the input feature dim
# Show the error between both
delta_y - summed_decomposition
#> setosa versicolor virginica
#> [1,] -0.09275362 -0.003985531 -0.001253254
#> [2,] 0.01313798 0.001135939 -0.003019523
The DeepSHAP method (Lundberg & Lee, 2017) extends the DeepLift technique by not only considering a single reference value but by calculating the average from several, ideally representative reference values at each layer. The obtained feature-wise results are approximate Shapley values for the chosen output, where the conditional expectation is computed using these different reference values, i.e., the DeepSHAP method decompose the difference from the prediction and the mean prediction \(f(x) - \mathbb{E}_{\tilde{x}}\left[f(\tilde{x}) \right]\) in feature-wise effects. This means, the DeepSHAP method has the same underlying goal as the Expected Gradient method and, hence, also solves the issue of choosing the right reference value for the DeepLift method.
Analogous to the previous methods, the innsight
method DeepSHAP
inherits from the
InterpretingMetod
super class and thus all arguments.
Alternatively, an object of the class DeepSHAP
can also be
created using the helper function run_deepshap
()`, which
does not require prior knowledge of R6 objects. In addition, there are
the following method-specific arguments for this method:
data_ref
(default: NULL
): The reference
data which is used to estimate the conditional expectation. These must
have the same format as the input data of the passed model to the
converter object. This means either
array
, data.frame
,
torch_tensor
or array-like format of size \(\left(1, \text{input_dim}\right)\) orlist
with the corresponding input data (according to
the upper point) for each of the input layers.NULL
to
take only zeros as reference input.limit_ref
(default: 100
): This argument
limits the number of instances taken from the reference dataset
data_ref
so that only random limit_ref
elements and not the entire dataset are used to estimate the conditional
expectation. A too-large number can significantly increase the
computation time.
(other model-specific arguments already explained in the DeepLift
method, e.g., rule_name
or
winner_takes_all
).
# R6 class syntax
deepshap <- DeepSHAP$new(converter, data,
data_ref = NULL,
limit_ref = 100,
... # other arguments inherited from 'DeepLift'
)
# Using the helper function for initialization
deepshap <- run_deepshap(converter, data,
data_ref = NULL,
limit_ref = 100,
... # other arguments inherited from 'DeepLift'
)
In the following example, we demonstrate how the DeepSHAP method is applied to the Iris dataset, accurately approximating the difference between the prediction and the mean prediction (adjusted for a very high sample size of \(10\,000\)):
library(neuralnet)
set.seed(42)
# Crate model with package 'neuralnet'
model <- neuralnet(Species ~ ., iris, linear.output = FALSE)
# Step 1: Create 'Converter'
conv <- convert(model)
# Step 2: Apply Expected Gradient
deepshap <- run_deepshap(conv, iris[c(1, 60), -5],
data_ref = iris[, -5], ignore_last_act = FALSE,
limit_ref = nrow(iris)
)
# Verify exact decomposition
y <- predict(model, iris[, -5])
delta_y <- y[c(1, 60), ] - rbind(colMeans(y), colMeans(y))
summed_decomposition <- apply(get_result(deepshap), c(1, 3), FUN = sum) # dim 2 is the input feature dim
# Show the error between both
delta_y - summed_decomposition
#> setosa versicolor virginica
#> [1,] -5.339583e-08 3.274975e-08 3.632456e-08
#> [2,] -9.623667e-09 -4.037981e-08 2.742707e-08
One of the earliest methods specifically for neural networks was the
Connection Weights method invented by Olden et al.
in 2004, resulting in a global relevance score for each input variable.
The basic idea of this approach is to multiply all path weights for each
possible connection between an input variable and the output node and
then calculate the sum of all of them. However, this method ignores all
bias vectors and all activation functions during calculation. Since only
the weights are used, this method is independent of input data and,
thus, a global interpretation method. In this package, we extended this
method to a local one inspired by the method Gradient\(\times\)Input (see here). Hence,
the local variant is simply the point-wise product of the global
Connection Weights method and the input data. You can use this
variant by setting the times_input
argument to
TRUE
and providing input data.
The innsight method ConnectionWeights
also inherits from the super class InterpretingMethod
,
meaning that you need to change the term Method
to
ConnectionWeights
. Alternatively, an object of the class
ConnectionWeights
can also be created using the helper
function run_cw()
, which does not require prior knowledge
of R6 objects. The only model-specific argument is
times_input
, which can be used to switch between the global
(FALSE
) and the local (TRUE
) Connection
Weights method.
# The global variant (argument 'data' is no longer required)
cw_global <- ConnectionWeights$new(converter,
times_input = FALSE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
# The local variant (argument 'data' is required)
cw_local <- ConnectionWeights$new(converter, data,
times_input = TRUE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
# Using the helper function
cw_local <- run_cw(converter, data,
times_input = TRUE,
... # other arguments inherited from 'InterpretingMethod'
)
Since the global Connection Weights method only multiplies the path weights, the result for the input feature \(x\) based on Figure 1 is \[ (1 \cdot 1) + (0.8 \cdot -1) + (2 \cdot 1) = 2.2. \] With the innsight package, we get the same value:
# Apply global Connection Weights method
cw_global <- run_cw(converter, times_input = FALSE)
# Show the result
get_result(cw_global)
#> , , y
#>
#> x
#> [1,] 2.2
However, the local variant requires input data data
and
returns instance-wise relevances:
Once a method object has been created, the results can be returned as
an array
, data.frame
, or
torch_tensor
, and can be further processed as desired. In
addition, for each of the three sizes of the inputs (tabular, 1D signals
or 2D images) suitable plot and boxplot functions based on ggplot2 are implemented. Due
to the complexity of higher dimensional inputs, these plots and boxplots
can also be displayed as an interactive plotly plots by using the argument
as_plotly
. These three class methods have also been
implemented as S3 methods (get_result()
,
plot()
and
plot_global()
/boxplot()
) for easier
handling.
library(torch)
library(neuralnet)
set.seed(45)
# Model for tabular data
# We use the iris dataset for tabular data
tab_data <- as.matrix(iris[, -5])
tab_data <- t((t(tab_data) - colMeans(tab_data)) / rowMeans((t(tab_data) - colMeans(tab_data))^2))
tab_names <- colnames(tab_data)
out_names <- unique(iris$Species)
tab_model <- neuralnet(Species ~ .,
data = data.frame(tab_data, Species = iris$Species),
linear.output = FALSE,
hidden = 10
)
# Model for image data
img_data <- array(rnorm(5 * 32 * 32 * 3), dim = c(5, 3, 32, 32))
img_model <- nn_sequential(
nn_conv2d(3, 5, c(3, 3)),
nn_relu(),
nn_avg_pool2d(c(2, 2)),
nn_conv2d(5, 10, c(2, 2)),
nn_relu(),
nn_avg_pool2d(c(2, 2)),
nn_flatten(),
nn_linear(490, 3),
nn_softmax(2)
)
# Create converter
tab_conv <- convert(tab_model,
input_dim = c(4),
input_names = tab_names,
output_names = out_names
)
img_conv <- convert(img_model, input_dim = c(3, 32, 32))
# Apply Gradient x Input
tab_grad <- run_grad(tab_conv, tab_data, times_input = TRUE)
img_grad <- run_grad(img_conv, img_data, times_input = TRUE)
Each instance of the presented interpretability methods has the class
method get_result()
, which is used to return the results.
You can choose between the data formats array
,
data.frame
or torch_tensor
by passing the name
as a character in the argument type
. As mentioned before,
there is also a S3 function get_result()
for this class
method.
# You can use the class method
method$get_result(type = "array")
# or you can use the S3 method
get_result(method, type = "array")
type = 'array'
)In the simplest case, when the passed model to the converter object
has only one input and one output layer, an R primitive
array
of dimension \(\left(\text{batch_size}, \text{input_dim},
\text{outputs}\right)\) is returned, where \(\text{outputs}\) means the number of
elements from the argument output_idx
. In addition, the
passed or generated input and output names are added to the array.
However, this method behaves differently if the passed model has multiple input and/or output layers. In these cases, a list (or a nested list) with the corresponding input and output layers with the associated results is generated as in the simple case from before:
\(n\) input layers and one output layer:
List of n
$ Input_1: array [batch_size, input_1_dim, outputs]
$ Input_2: array [batch_size, input_2_dim, outputs]
...
$ Input_n: array [batch_size, input_n_dim, outputs]
one input layer and \(k\) output
layers (outputs_i
are the corresponding output indices
specified previously in the argument output_idx
):
List of k
$ Output_1: array [batch_size, input_dim, outputs_1]
$ Output_2: array [batch_size, input_dim, outputs_2]
...
$ Output_k: array [batch_size, input_dim, outputs_k]
\(n\) input and \(k\) output layers (outputs_i
are the corresponding output indices specified previously in the
argument output_idx
):
List of k
$ Output_1: List of n
$ Input_1: array [batch_size, input_1_dim, outputs_1]
$ Input_2: array [batch_size, input_2_dim, outputs_1]
...
$ Input_n: array [batch_size, input_n_dim, outputs_1]
$ Output_2: List of n
$ Input_1: array [batch_size, input_1_dim, outputs_2]
$ Input_2: array [batch_size, input_2_dim, outputs_2]
...
$ Input_n: array [batch_size, input_n_dim, outputs_2]
...
$ Output_k: List of n
$ Input_1: array [batch_size, input_1_dim, outputs_k]
$ Input_2: array [batch_size, input_2_dim, outputs_k]
...
$ Input_n: array [batch_size, input_n_dim, outputs_k]
# Apply method 'Gradient x Input' for classes 1 ('setosa') and 3 ('virginica')
tab_grad <- run_grad(tab_conv, tab_data,
output_idx = c(1, 3),
times_input = TRUE
)
# Get result
result_array <- tab_grad$get_result()
# You can also use the S3 function 'get_result'
result_array <- get_result(tab_grad)
# Show the result for datapoint 1 and 10
result_array[c(1, 10), , ]
#> , , setosa
#>
#> Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width
#> [1,] -0.8710905 -0.4592198 3.246672 0.6098830
#> [2,] -1.1206678 -0.0285231 2.863380 0.6617002
#>
#> , , virginica
#>
#> Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width
#> [1,] 1.034490 0.4134941 -2.887100 -0.6511033
#> [2,] 1.406196 0.0178409 -2.672977 -0.7532284
# Apply method 'Gradient' for outputs 1 and 2
img_grad <- run_grad(img_conv, img_data, output_idx = c(1, 2))
# Get result
result_array <- img_grad$get_result()
# You can also use the S3 function 'get_result'
result_array <- get_result(img_grad)
# Show the result
str(result_array)
#> num [1:5, 1:3, 1:32, 1:32, 1:2] 8.41e-05 -6.74e-05 1.48e-04 -8.55e-05 -2.91e-05 ...
#> - attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 5
#> ..$ : NULL
#> ..$ : chr [1:3] "C1" "C2" "C3"
#> ..$ : chr [1:32] "H1" "H2" "H3" "H4" ...
#> ..$ : chr [1:32] "W1" "W2" "W3" "W4" ...
#> ..$ : chr [1:2] "Y1" "Y2"
Multiple inputs and one output layer
First, we consider a model with two input layers. In this case, we
have a list of the length of the input layers 'Input_1'
,
'Input_2'
, … 'Input_n'
and each entry contains
an named array of shape \(\left(\text{batch_size}, \text{input_dim}_i,
\text{outputs} \right)\) with \(\text{input_dim}_i\) the input shape of
input layer 'Input_i'
:
library(keras)
first_input <- layer_input(shape = c(10, 10, 2))
second_input <- layer_input(shape = c(11))
tmp <- first_input %>%
layer_conv_2d(2, c(2, 2), activation = "relu") %>%
layer_flatten() %>%
layer_dense(units = 11)
output <- layer_add(c(tmp, second_input)) %>%
layer_dense(units = 5, activation = "relu") %>%
layer_dense(units = 3, activation = "softmax")
model <- keras_model(
inputs = c(first_input, second_input),
outputs = output
)
conv <- convert(model)
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
data <- lapply(
list(c(10, 10, 2), c(11)),
function(x) array(rnorm(5 * prod(x)), dim = c(5, x))
)
# Apply method 'Gradient' for outputs 1 and 2
grad <- run_grad(conv, data, output_idx = c(1, 2), channels_first = FALSE)
# Get result
result_array <- grad$get_result()
# You can also use the S3 function 'get_result'
result_array <- get_result(grad)
# Show the result
str(result_array)
#> List of 2
#> $ Input_1: num [1:5, 1:10, 1:10, 1:2, 1:2] -0.000287 -0.004833 0.000688 0.001808 -0.006448 ...
#> ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 5
#> .. ..$ : NULL
#> .. ..$ : chr [1:10] "H1" "H2" "H3" "H4" ...
#> .. ..$ : chr [1:10] "W1" "W2" "W3" "W4" ...
#> .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "C1" "C2"
#> .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "Y1" "Y2"
#> $ Input_2: num [1:5, 1:11, 1:2] 0.3377 -0.2655 0.217 -0.0619 0.0722 ...
#> ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 3
#> .. ..$ : NULL
#> .. ..$ : chr [1:11] "X1" "X2" "X3" "X4" ...
#> .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "Y1" "Y2"
Multiple input and output layer
In this case, we have an outer list describing the output layers
'Output_1'
, 'Output_2'
, …,
'Output_k'
and an inner list for the input layers
'Input_1'
, 'Input_2'
, …
'Input_n'
. Each entry contains an named array of shape
\(\left(\text{batch_size}, \text{input_dim}_i,
\text{outputs}_j \right)\) with \(\text{input_dim}_i\) the input shape of
input layer 'Input_i'
and \(\text{outputs}_j\) the output indices of
the output layer 'Output_j'
as specified in the argument
output_idx
.
library(keras)
first_input <- layer_input(shape = c(10, 10, 2))
second_input <- layer_input(shape = c(11))
tmp <- first_input %>%
layer_conv_2d(2, c(2, 2), activation = "relu") %>%
layer_flatten() %>%
layer_dense(units = 11)
first_output <- layer_add(c(tmp, second_input)) %>%
layer_dense(units = 20, activation = "relu") %>%
layer_dense(units = 3, activation = "softmax")
second_output <- layer_concatenate(c(tmp, second_input)) %>%
layer_dense(units = 20, activation = "relu") %>%
layer_dense(units = 3, activation = "softmax")
model <- keras_model(
inputs = c(first_input, second_input),
outputs = c(first_output, second_output)
)
conv <- convert(model)
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
data <- lapply(
list(c(10, 10, 2), c(11)),
function(x) array(rnorm(5 * prod(x)), dim = c(5, x))
)
# Apply method 'Gradient' for outputs 1 and 2 in the first and
# for outputs 1 and 3 in the second output layer
grad <- run_grad(conv, data,
output_idx = list(c(1, 2), c(1, 3)),
channels_first = FALSE
)
# Get result
result_array <- grad$get_result()
# You can also use the S3 function 'get_result'
result_array <- get_result(grad)
# Show the result
str(result_array)
#> List of 2
#> $ Output_1:List of 2
#> ..$ Input_1: num [1:5, 1:10, 1:10, 1:2, 1:2] -0.0321 -0.027 -0.0368 -0.026 -0.0409 ...
#> .. ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 5
#> .. .. ..$ : NULL
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:10] "H1" "H2" "H3" "H4" ...
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:10] "W1" "W2" "W3" "W4" ...
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "C1" "C2"
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "Y1" "Y2"
#> ..$ Input_2: num [1:5, 1:11, 1:2] -0.6044 -0.167 -0.0115 -0.4573 -0.4856 ...
#> .. ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 3
#> .. .. ..$ : NULL
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:11] "X1" "X2" "X3" "X4" ...
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "Y1" "Y2"
#> $ Output_2:List of 2
#> ..$ Input_1: num [1:5, 1:10, 1:10, 1:2, 1:2] -0.0235 -0.0263 -0.0435 -0.0105 -0.0255 ...
#> .. ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 5
#> .. .. ..$ : NULL
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:10] "H1" "H2" "H3" "H4" ...
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:10] "W1" "W2" "W3" "W4" ...
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "C1" "C2"
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "Y1" "Y3"
#> ..$ Input_2: num [1:5, 1:11, 1:2] -0.1639 0.0425 0.078 -0.0781 -0.1825 ...
#> .. ..- attr(*, "dimnames")=List of 3
#> .. .. ..$ : NULL
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:11] "X1" "X2" "X3" "X4" ...
#> .. .. ..$ : chr [1:2] "Y1" "Y3"
type = 'torch_tensor'
)Internally all calculations are performed with the package
torch. Therefore the results can also be returned as
torch_tensor
instead of an array
analogous to
the case above.
type = 'data.frame'
)Another convenient way to output the results, for example, to
visualize them directly in your own ggplot2 object, is
to return them as a data.frame
. The following columns are
generated:
'data'
: In this column the individual data points
from the argument data
are distinguished. Thereby the names
'data_1'
, 'data_2'
, … are generated according
to the number of data points.
'model_input'
: This column describes the different
input layers of the given model and creates the labels
'Input_1'
, 'Input_2'
, … according to the
number of input layers.
'model_output'
: This column describes the different
output layers of the given model and creates the labels
'Output_1'
, 'Output_2'
, … according to the
number of output layers.
'feature'
: This column represents the input names of
the corresponding input layer and is determined by the values from
input_names
passed the converter object. For image data,
this column corresponds to the height of the image.
'feature'_2
: This is only generated for image inputs
and describes the image width.
'channel'
: This column is only generated for signal
and image inputs describing the respective input channel.
'output_node'
: The respective output node or class
for the corresponding output layer specified with the argument
output_idx
.
'value'
: This column contains the result of the
applied method for the respective data point, input layer, output layer,
output node/class and input feature.
'pred'
: The prediction of the respective input
instance ('data'
) for the output node
'output_node'
in the output layer
'model_output'
.
'decomp_sum'
: The sum of all relevance values
('value'
) for an input instance ('data'
) and
output node 'output_node'
in the output layer
'model_output'
.
'decomp_goal'
: The corresponding decomposition goal
of the applied feature attribution method (if available, otherwise
NA
s) for an input instance ('data'
) and output
node 'output_node'
in the output layer
'model_output'
.
'input_dimension'
: This column contains one of the
values
1
: the value corresponds to an tabular input.2
: the value corresponds to a signal input.3
: the value corresponds to an image as input.For example, if we train a model on the Iris dataset with the four
inputs ("Sepal.Length"
, "Sepal.Width"
,
"Petal.Length"
and "Petal.Width"
) and the
three classes "setosa"
, "versicolor"
and
"virginica"
as outputs, we get the following
data.frame
:
head(get_result(tab_grad, "data.frame"), 5)
#> data model_input model_output feature output_node value pred decomp_sum decomp_goal input_dimension
#> 1 data_1 Input_1 Output_1 Sepal.Length setosa -0.8710905 1 2.526245 38.69567 1
#> 2 data_2 Input_1 Output_1 Sepal.Length setosa -0.8874521 1 2.200905 37.48206 1
#> 3 data_3 Input_1 Output_1 Sepal.Length setosa -3.2150848 1 2.216230 37.25521 1
#> 4 data_4 Input_1 Output_1 Sepal.Length setosa -2.1678915 1 2.855534 36.83816 1
#> 5 data_5 Input_1 Output_1 Sepal.Length setosa -1.2359949 1 2.779133 38.44946 1
Analogously, you can also output the results for the model with image
data. As already mentioned, the columns for the channel
("channel"
) and the image width ("feature_2"
)
are then added:
head(get_result(img_grad, "data.frame"), 5)
#> data model_input model_output feature feature_2 channel output_node value pred decomp_sum decomp_goal input_dimension
#> 1 data_1 Input_1 Output_1 H1 W1 C1 Y1 8.411986e-05 0.3797532 0.2035653 0.1454802 3
#> 2 data_2 Input_1 Output_1 H1 W1 C1 Y1 -6.742067e-05 0.3799127 0.1290658 0.1802950 3
#> 3 data_3 Input_1 Output_1 H1 W1 C1 Y1 1.484406e-04 0.3830113 0.1445547 0.1428660 3
#> 4 data_4 Input_1 Output_1 H1 W1 C1 Y1 -8.549758e-05 0.3795773 0.1908824 0.1690501 3
#> 5 data_5 Input_1 Output_1 H1 W1 C1 Y1 -2.910699e-05 0.3763377 0.1773879 0.1396796 3
library(ggplot2)
library(neuralnet)
# get the result from the tabular model
df <- get_result(tab_grad, "data.frame")
# calculate mean absolute gradient
df <- aggregate(df$value,
by = list(feature = df$feature, class = df$output_node),
FUN = function(x) mean(abs(x))
)
ggplot(df) +
geom_bar(aes(x = feature, y = x, fill = class),
stat = "identity",
position = "dodge"
) +
ggtitle("Mean over absolut values of the gradients") +
xlab("Input feature") +
ylab("Mean(abs(gradients))") +
theme_bw()
plot()
This method visualizes the result of the selected method and enables
a in-depth visual investigation with the help of the S4 classes
innsight_ggplot2
and innsight_plotly
. You can
use the argument data_idx
to select the data points in the
given data for the plot. In addition, the individual plot’s output nodes
or classes can be selected with the argument output_idx
(for indices) or output_label
(for the class labels). But
this has to be a subset of the argument
output_idx
or output_label
passed to
the respective method previously because the results were only
calculated for these outputs. The different results for the selected
data points and outputs are visualized using the
ggplot2-based S4 class innsight_ggplot2
.
You can also use the as_plotly
argument to generate an
interactive plot with innsight_plotly
based on the plot
function plotly::plot_ly
. For more information and the
whole bunch of possibilities, see the R documentation
(?innsight_ggplot2
and ?innsight_plotly
) or in
this section. There are the following
arguments:
data_idx
: An integer vector containing the numbers of
the data points whose result is to be plotted, e.g., c(1,3)
for the first and third data point in the given data.
đź“ť Note
This argument will be ignored for the global Connection Weights method.
output_idx
: The indices of the output nodes for which the
results is to be plotted. This can be either a vector of indices or a
list of vectors of indices but must be a subset of the indices for which
the results were calculated, i.e., a subset of the argument output_idx
passed
to the respective method previously. By default (NULL
), the
smallest index of all calculated output nodes and output layers is used.
output_label
: The labels of the output nodes for which the
results is to be plotted. This can be either a vector of labels or a
list of vectors of labels (character or factor) but must be a subset of
the labels for which the results were calculated, i.e., a subset of the
argument output_label
passed to the respective method previously. By default
(NULL
), the smallest index of all calculated output nodes
and output layers is used.
aggr_channels
: Pass one of 'norm'
,
'sum'
, 'mean'
or a custom function to
aggregate the channels. By default ('sum'
), the sum of all
channels is used.
đź“ť Note
This argument is used only for 1D signal and 2D image input data.
as_plotly
: This logical value (default:
FALSE
) can be used to create an interactive plot based on
the library plotly
(see ?innsight_plotly
or here for details).
đź“ť Note
Make sure that the suggested package plotly is installed in your R session.
same_scale
: A logical value that specifies whether the
individual plots have the same fill scale across multiple input layers
or whether each is scaled individually. This argument is only used if
more than one input layer’s result is plotted. This is especially
relevant when plotting explanations of images and tabular data
simultaneously since the relevances are usually from different
scales.
đź“ť Note
By default, the relevances within each output class, data point, and, if available, input layer are scaled and highlighted separately with the colors red for positive, blue for negative, and white for the absence of relevance so that the different intensities of the relevances can be distinguished by their colors.
show_preds
: This logical value indicates whether the
plots display the prediction, the sum of calculated relevances, and, if
available, the targeted decomposition value in a small infobox. For
example, in the case of Gradient\(\times\)Input, the goal is to obtain a
feature-wise decomposition of the predicted value, while for DeepLift
and IntegratedGradient, the goal is the difference between the
prediction and the reference value, i.e., \(f(x) - f(\tilde{x})\). However, the
infoboxes are only shown for ggplo2-based plots.
# Class method
method$plot(
data_idx = 1,
output_idx = NULL,
output_label = NULL,
aggr_channels = "sum",
as_plotly = FALSE,
same_scale = FALSE,
show_preds = TRUE
)
# or the S3 method
plot(method,
data_idx = 1,
output_idx = NULL,
output_label = NULL,
aggr_channels = "sum",
as_plotly = FALSE,
same_scale = FALSE,
show_preds = TRUE
)
Examples and usage:
# Create plot for output classes 'setosa' and 'virginica' and
# data points '1' and '70'
p <- plot(tab_grad, output_label = c("setosa", "virginica"), data_idx = c(1, 70))
# Although it's not a ggplot2 object ...
class(p)
#> [1] "innsight_ggplot2"
#> attr(,"package")
#> [1] "innsight"
# ... it can be treated as one
p +
ggplot2::theme_bw() +
ggplot2::ggtitle("My first 'innsight'-plot")
# In addition, you can use all the options of the class 'innsight_ggplot2',
# e.g. getting the corresponding ggplot2 object
class(p[[1, 1]])
#> [1] "gg" "ggplot"
# or creating a subplot
p[2, 1:2]
# You can do the same with the plotly-based plots
p <- plot(tab_grad, output_idx = c(1, 3), data_idx = c(1, 70), as_plotly = TRUE)
# Show plot (it also includes a drop down menu for selecting the colorscale)
p
# We can do the same for models with image data. In addition, you can define
# the aggregation function for the channels
p <- plot(img_grad,
output_idx = c(1, 2), data_idx = c(1, 4),
aggr_channels = "norm"
)
# Although it's not a ggplot2 object ...
class(p)
#> [1] "innsight_ggplot2"
#> attr(,"package")
#> [1] "innsight"
# ... it can be treated as one
p +
ggplot2::theme_bw() +
ggplot2::scale_fill_viridis_c() +
ggplot2::ggtitle("My first 'innsight'-plot")
#> Scale for fill is already present.
#> Adding another scale for fill, which will replace the existing scale.
If you want to make changes to the results before plotting, you can
get the results with method$result
(a list of
torch_tensor
s!), change it accordingly, and then save it
back to the field method$result
as a list of
torch_tensor
s.
# You can also do custom modifications of the results, e.g.
# taking the absolute value of all results. But the
# shape has to be the same after the modification!
result <- tab_grad$result
# The model has only one input (inner list) and one output layer (outer list), so
# we need to modify only a single entry
str(result)
#> List of 1
#> $ :List of 1
#> ..$ :Float [1:150, 1:4, 1:2]
# Take the absolute value and save it back to the object 'img_grad'
tab_grad$result[[1]][[1]] <- abs(result[[1]][[1]])
# Show the result
plot(tab_grad, output_idx = c(1, 3), data_idx = c(1, 70))
plot_global()
This method visualizes summarized results of the selected method over
all data points (or a subset) and enables an in-depth visual
investigation with the help of the S4 classes
innsight_ggplot2
and innsight_plotly
similar
to the previous plot
function. You can use the argument
output_idx
/output_label
to select the
individual output nodes for the plot. But this has to be a subset of the
argument output_idx
or
output_label
passed to
the respective method previously because the results were only
calculated for these outputs. For tabular and 1D signal data, boxplots
are created in which a reference value can be selected from the data
using the ref_data_idx
argument. For images, only the
pixel-wise median is visualized due to the complexity. The different
results for the selected outputs are visualized using the
ggplot2-based S4 class innsight_ggplot2
.
You can also use the as_plotly
argument to generate an
interactive plot with innsight_plotly
based on the plot
function plotly::plot_ly
. For more information and the
whole bunch of possibilities, see the R documentation
(?innsight_ggplot2
and ?innsight_plotly
) or in
this section.
There are the following arguments:
output_idx
: The indices of the output nodes for which the
results is to be plotted. This can be either a vector of indices or a
list of vectors of indices but must be a subset of the indices for which
the results were calculated, i.e., a subset of the argument output_idx
passed
to the respective method previously. By default (NULL
), the
smallest index of all calculated output nodes and output layers is used.
data_idx
: By default, all available data points are used to
calculate the boxplot information. However, this parameter can be used
to select a subset of them by passing the indices. For example, with
c(1:10, 25, 26)
only the first 10 data points and the 25th
and 26th are used to calculate the boxplots.
output_label
: The labels of the output nodes for which the
results is to be plotted. This can be either a vector of labels or a
list of vectors of labels (character or factor) but must be a subset of
the labels for which the results were calculated, i.e., a subset of the
argument output_label
passed to the respective method previously. By default
(NULL
), the smallest index of all calculated output nodes
and output layers is used.
ref_data_idx
: This integer number determines the index
for the reference data point. In addition to the boxplots, it is
displayed in red color and is used to compare an individual result with
the summary statistics provided by the boxplot. With the default value
(NULL
), no individual data point is plotted. This index can
be chosen with respect to all available data, even if only a subset is
selected with argument data_idx
.
đź“ť Note
Because of the complexity of 2D image inputs, this argument is used only for tabular and 1D signal data and disregarded for images.
aggr_channels
: Pass one of 'norm'
,
'sum'
, 'mean'
or a custom function to
aggregate the channels. By default ('sum'
), the sum of all
channels is used.
đź“ť Note
This argument is used only for 1D signal and 2D image input data.
preprocess_FUN
: This function is applied to the method’s
result before calculating the boxplot information or medians. Since
positive and negative values often cancel each other out, the absolute
value is used by default. But you can also use the raw results
(base::identity
) to see the results’ orientation, the
squared data (function(x) x^2
) to weight the outliers
higher or any other function.
as_plotly
: This logical value (default:
FALSE
) can be used to create an interactive plot based on
the library plotly (see ?innsight_plotly
or here for details).
đź“ť Note
Make sure that the suggested package plotly is installed in your R session.
individual_data_idx
(only relevant for a
plotly plot with tabular or 1D signal inputs!): This
integer vector of data indices determines the available data points in a
dropdown menu, which are drawn individually analogous to
ref_data_idx
only for more data points. With the default
value NULL
, the first individual_max
data
points are used.
đź“ť Note
Ifref_data_idx
is specified, this data point will be added to those fromindividual_data_idx
in the dropdown menu.
individual_max
(only relevant for a plotly
plot with tabular or 1D signal inputs!): This integer determines the
maximum number of individual data points in the dropdown menu without
counting ref_data_idx
. This means that if
individual_data_idx
has more than
individual_max
indices, only the first
individual_max
will be used. A too high number can
significantly increase the runtime.
# Class method
method$plot_global(
output_idx = NULL,
data_idx = "all",
ref_data_idx = NULL,
aggr_channels = "sum",
preprocess_FUN = abs,
as_plotly = FALSE,
individual_data_idx = NULL,
individual_max = 20
)
# or the S3 method
plot_global(method,
output_idx = NULL,
data_idx = "all",
ref_data_idx = NULL,
aggr_channels = "sum",
preprocess_FUN = abs,
as_plotly = FALSE,
individual_data_idx = NULL,
individual_max = 20
)
# or the alias for tabular or signal data
boxplot(...)
Examples and usage:
# Create a boxplot for output classes '1' (setosa) and '3' (virginica)
p <- boxplot(tab_grad, output_idx = c(1, 3))
# Although, it's not a ggplot2 object ...
class(p)
#> [1] "innsight_ggplot2"
#> attr(,"package")
#> [1] "innsight"
# ... it can be treated as one
p +
ggplot2::theme_bw() +
ggplot2::ggtitle("My first 'innsight'-boxplot!")
# You can also select only the indices of the class 'setosa'
# and add a reference data point of another class ('versicolor')
boxplot(tab_grad, output_idx = c(1, 3), data_idx = 1:50, ref_data_idx = c(60))
# You can do the same with the plotly-based plots
p <- boxplot(tab_grad,
output_idx = c(1, 3), data_idx = 1:50,
ref_data_idx = 60, as_plotly = TRUE
)
# Show plot (it also includes a drop down menu for selecting the reference data
# point and toggle the plot type 'Boxplot' or 'Violin')
p
# We can do the same for models with image data (but have to use the method
# `plot_global`, since no boxplots are created). In addition, you can define
# the aggregation function for the channels
p <- plot_global(img_grad, output_idx = c(1, 2), aggr_channels = "norm")
# Although it's not a ggplot2 object ...
class(p)
#> [1] "innsight_ggplot2"
#> attr(,"package")
#> [1] "innsight"
# ... it can be treated as one
p +
ggplot2::theme_bw() +
ggplot2::coord_flip() +
ggplot2::ggtitle("My first 'innsight'-boxplot")
# You can do the same with the plotly-based plots
p <- plot_global(img_grad,
output_idx = c(1, 2), aggr_channels = "norm",
as_plotly = TRUE
)
# Show plot (it also includes a drop down menu for selecting the colorscale,
# another menu for toggling between the plot types 'Heatmap' and 'Contour'
# and a scale for selecting the respective percentile)
p
In the preceding two sections, the basic plot()
and
plot_global()
/boxplot()
functions have already
been explained. As mentioned there, these functions create either an
object of the S4 class innsight_ggplot2
(if
as_plotly = FALSE
) or one of the S4 class
innsight_plotly
(if as_plotly = TRUE
). These
are intended as a generalization of the usual ggplot2
or plotly objects since, with these packages, one
quickly reaches their limits of clear visualization possibilities for
models with multiple input and/or output layers. For example, two plots
with different x-axis scales for each output node need to be generated
in a model with images and tabular data as inputs.
library(keras)
library(torch)
# Create model with tabular data as inputs and one output layer
model <- keras_model_sequential() %>%
layer_dense(50, activation = "relu", input_shape = c(5)) %>%
layer_dense(20, activation = "relu") %>%
layer_dense(3, activation = "softmax")
converter <- convert(model)
data <- array(rnorm(5 * 50), dim = c(50, 5))
res_simple <- run_grad(converter, data)
# Create model with images as inputs and two output layers
input_image <- layer_input(shape = c(10, 10, 3))
conv_part <- input_image %>%
layer_conv_2d(5, c(2, 2), activation = "relu", padding = "same") %>%
layer_average_pooling_2d() %>%
layer_conv_2d(4, c(2, 2)) %>%
layer_activation(activation = "softplus") %>%
layer_flatten()
output_1 <- conv_part %>%
layer_dense(50, activation = "relu") %>%
layer_dense(3, activation = "softmax")
output_2 <- conv_part %>%
layer_dense(50, activation = "relu") %>%
layer_dense(3, activation = "softmax")
keras_model_concat <- keras_model(
inputs = input_image,
outputs = c(output_1, output_2)
)
converter <- convert(keras_model_concat)
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
data <- array(rnorm(10 * 10 * 3 * 5), dim = c(5, 10, 10, 3))
res_one_input <- run_grad(converter, data,
channels_first = FALSE,
output_idx = list(1:3, 1:3)
)
# Create model with images and tabular data as inputs and two
# output layers
input_image <- layer_input(shape = c(10, 10, 3))
input_tab <- layer_input(shape = c(10))
conv_part <- input_image %>%
layer_conv_2d(5, c(2, 2), activation = "relu", padding = "same") %>%
layer_average_pooling_2d() %>%
layer_conv_2d(4, c(2, 2)) %>%
layer_activation(activation = "softplus") %>%
layer_flatten()
output_1 <- layer_concatenate(list(conv_part, input_tab)) %>%
layer_dense(50, activation = "relu") %>%
layer_dropout(0.3) %>%
layer_dense(3, activation = "softmax")
output_2 <- layer_concatenate(list(conv_part, input_tab)) %>%
layer_dense(3, activation = "softmax")
keras_model_concat <- keras_model(
inputs = list(input_image, input_tab),
outputs = list(output_1, output_2)
)
converter <- convert(keras_model_concat)
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
#> Skipping InputLayer ...
#> Skipping Dropout ...
data <- lapply(list(c(10, 10, 3), c(10)), function(x) torch_randn(c(5, x)))
res_two_inputs <- run_grad(converter, data,
times_input = TRUE,
channels_first = FALSE,
output_idx = list(1:3, 1:3)
)
All ggplot2-based plots generated by the
innsight package are an object of the S4 class
innsight_ggplto2
, a simple extension of a
ggplot2 object that enables more detailed analysis and
comparison of the results. In addition, it provides a way to visualize
the results of models with multiple input or output layers with
different scales, e.g., images and tabular data. The values in the slots
of this class depend very much on whether results for multiple input or
output layers (multiplot = TRUE
), or for only a single
input and output layer (multiplot = FALSE
) are visualized
as described in the following. But in general, however, the slots are
only explained here for internal purposes and should not be changed in
standard use cases.
If the model passed to a method from the innsight
package has only one input layer, or the results to be plotted are only
from a single output layer (i.e., slot multiplot = FALSE
),
the S4 class innsight_ggplot2
is just a wrapper of a single
ggplot2 object. This object is stored as a 1x1 matrix
in the slot grobs
and the slots output_strips
and col_dims
contain only empty lists because no second
line of stripes describing the input or output layer is needed.
Slots:
grobs
: A 1x1 matrix containing the whole
ggplot2 object.
mulitplot
: In this case, this logical value is
always FALSE
.
output_strips
: In this case, this value is an empty
list list()
.
col_dims
: In this case, this value is an empty list
list()
.
boxplot
: A logical value indicating whether the
result of individual data points or a boxplot over multiple instances is
displayed.
# Create plot for output node 1 and 2 in the first output layer and
# data points 1 and 3
p <- plot(res_one_input, output_idx = c(1, 2), data_idx = c(1, 3))
# It's not an ggplot2 object
class(p)
#> [1] "innsight_ggplot2"
#> attr(,"package")
#> [1] "innsight"
# The slot 'grobs' only contains a single entry
p@grobs
#> [,1]
#> [1,] gg,11
# It's not a multiplot
p@multiplot
#> [1] FALSE
# Therefore, slots 'output_strips' and 'col_dims' are empty lists
p@output_strips
#> list()
p@col_dims
#> list()
Although it is an object of the class innsight_ggplot2
,
the generic function +.innsight_ggplot2
provides a
ggplot2-typical usage to modify the representation. The
graphical objects are simply forwarded to the ggplot2
object stored in the slot grobs
and added using
ggplot2::+.gg
(see ?ggplot2::`+.gg`
for
details). In addition, some generic functions are implemented to
visualize or examine individual aspects of the overall plot in more
detail. All available generic functions are listed below:
Available generic functions:
+
: This generic add function allows to treat an instance
of innsight_ggplot2
as an ordinary plot object of
ggplot2. For example geoms, themes and scales can be
added as usual (see ggplot2::`+.gg`
for more information).
However, an object of the class innsight_ggplot2
is
returned.
# Create plot
p <- plot(res_one_input, output_idx = c(1, 2), data_idx = c(1, 3))
# Now we can add geoms, themes and scales as usual for ggplot2 objects
df <- data.frame(
x = c(0.5, 0.5, 10.5, 10.5, 0.5),
y = c(0.5, 10.5, 10.5, 0.5, 0.5)
)
new_p <- p +
geom_path(df, mapping = aes(x = x, y = y), color = "red", size = 3) +
theme_bw() +
scale_fill_viridis_c()
#> Scale for fill is already present.
#> Adding another scale for fill, which will replace the existing scale.
# This object is still an 'innsight_ggplot2' object...
class(new_p)
#> [1] "innsight_ggplot2"
#> attr(,"package")
#> [1] "innsight"
# ... but all ggplot2 geoms, themes and scales are added
new_p
[
: With this basic generic indexing functions, the plots
of individual rows and columns can be accessed and is returned as an
object of the class innsight_ggplot2
.
[[
: With this basic generic indexing functions, you can
select a single plot by passing the respective row and column index.
This plot is returned as a ggplot2 object.
plot
, print
and show
: These
methods provide generic visualization functions, which all behave the
same in this case. They create the plot of the results and return a
ggplot2 object invisibly.
If the passed model has multiple input layers or results for multiple
output layers are to be plotted, a ggplot2 object is
created for each data point, input layer, and output node and then
stored as a matrix in the slot grobs
. During visualization,
these are combined using the function
gridExtra::arrangeGrob
(see
?gridExtra::arrangeGrob
for details) and corresponding
strips for the output layer/node names are added at the top. The labels,
column indices and theme for the extra row of strips are stored in the
slots output_strips
and col_dims
. The strips
for the input layer and the data points (if not a boxplot) are created
using ggplot2::facet_grid
in the individual
ggplot2 objects of the grobs
matrix. An
example structure is shown below:
| Output 1: Node 1 | Output 1: Node 3 |
| Input 1 | Input 2 | Input 1 | Input 2 |
|---------------------------------------------------------|-------------
| | | | |
| grobs[1,1] | grobs[1,2] | grobs[1,3] | grobs[1,4] | data point 1
| | | | |
|---------------------------------------------------------|-------------
| | | | |
| grobs[2,1] | grobs[2,2] | grobs[2,3] | grobs[2,4] | data point 2
|
Slots:
grobs
: The individual ggplot2
objects arranged as a matrix of size \(\left(\text{N}_\text{datapoints},
\text{N}_\text{outputnodes} \cdot
\text{N}_\text{inputlayers}\right)\).
multiplot
: In this case, this logical value is
always TRUE
.
output_strips
: This slot is a list containing the
labels and themes of the strips for the output nodes, i.e., the
additional strips at the top of the overall plot.
col_dims
: A list of the length of slot
output_strips$labels
assigning to each strip the number of
columns for each output node strip.
boxplot
: A logical value indicating whether the
result of individual data points or a boxplot over multiple instances is
displayed.
đź“ť Note
Since these plots are more complex and do not build ggplot2 objects anymore, the suggested packages grid, gridExtra and gtable are needed and loaded.
# Create a plot for output node 1 in the first output layer and node 2 in the
# second output layer and data points 1 and 3
p <- plot(res_two_inputs, output_idx = list(1, c(1, 2)), data_idx = c(1, 3))
#> Lade nötigen Namensraum: gridExtra
# It's not a ggplot2 object
class(p)
#> [1] "innsight_ggplot2"
#> attr(,"package")
#> [1] "innsight"
# In this case, 'grobs' is a 2x6 matrix
p@grobs
#> [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [,6]
#> [1,] gg,11 gg,11 gg,11 gg,11 gg,11 gg,11
#> [2,] gg,11 gg,11 gg,11 gg,11 gg,11 gg,11
# It's a multiplot
p@multiplot
#> [1] TRUE
# Slot 'output_strips' is a list with the three labels for the output nodes
# and the theme for the strips
str(p@output_strips, max.level = 1)
#> List of 2
#> $ labels:'data.frame': 3 obs. of 1 variable:
#> $ theme :List of 136
#> ..- attr(*, "class")= chr [1:2] "theme" "gg"
#> ..- attr(*, "complete")= logi TRUE
#> ..- attr(*, "validate")= logi TRUE
# Slot 'col_dims' contains the number of columns for each output node
p@col_dims
#> [[1]]
#> [1] 2
#>
#> [[2]]
#> [1] 2
#>
#> [[3]]
#> [1] 2
Analogous to the other case, the generic function
+.innsight_ggplot2
provides a
ggplot2-typical usage to modify the representation. The
graphical objects are simply forwarded to the ggplot2
objects stored in the slot grobs
and added using
ggplot2::+.gg
(see ?ggplot2::`+.gg`
for
details). In addition, some generic functions are implemented to
visualize or examine individual aspects of the overall plot in more
detail. All available generic functions are listed below:
+
, [
and [[
: These generic
functions have the same behavior as in the upper case (see there for
details and examples). Except for one additional argument in the
indexing function [[
, namely restyle
. This
argument can be used to decide whether the subplots are formatted
according to the whole plot (i.e., labels, facet strips, etc., are
transferred) or whether the subplot is extracted in the same way as it
is shown in the whole plot.
plot
, print
and show
: These
methods provide generic visualization functions, which all behave the
same in this case. They create the plot of the results and return a
gtable object invisibly. For plot
and
print
, you can also pass additional arguments forwarded to
gridExtra::arrangeGrob
.